My Notes TiddlyWiki 2.02 - Another useful TiddlyWiki resource from http://www.giffmex.org

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Paper 13
A REPORT OF COMPLETED RESEARCH CONCERNING THE PERCEIVED PREVAILING DISCOURSE OF LIFELONG LEARNING AND THE CONTRASTING NARRATIVES FROM OLDER PEOPLE.

Dr Sheena E E Blair,
Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK

A transition has been described as a “discontinuity” in a person’s life space by Adams et al (1976) Such interruptions can include leaving home, partnership, having children or retirement. Managing the personal change involved in coping with a transition depends upon its nature and whether it was planned, voluntary or unexpected (Blair 2000). The transition into the third age is arguably expected and the thesis of this paper is that learning and involvement with the ethos of lifelong learning can contribute to the personal management of that transition and positively contribute to health and well being.

Lifelong learning raises expectations of a process that will endure over the life course. Economic and social benefits are believed to accrue for both the individual and society as a result. Older people constitute the fastest growing population in Scotland but acquiring knowledge and skills for employment may not be their priority. However, they have an investment in the social purposes of learning and education. Also, people who are aged fifty plus, have learning and educational trajectories, which may either encourage or dissuade them from engaging with learning opportunities in later life.

Research questions providing impetus for this work revolved around the impact of lifelong learning policy and meanings of learning and education for people in later life. The aim of this study was to explore the individual and collective perceptions of a small group of older people about the nature, purpose and meaning of learning and education.

A review of selected literature about the learning society; lifelong learning and associated social benefits revealed a hegemonic discourse of invisibility concerning older people. But, a separate and parallel discourse of emancipation was evident within educational gerontology. Amongst the perceived benefits of learning in later life was increased participation in society and links with health.

This interpretative, collaborative study used critical hermeneutics to explore and locate participants’ perceptions and meanings of learning and education against a background of historical and contextual social relations. Methods used included focus groups; in-depth topic centred narrative interviews alongside a process of constant reflexivity. A purposeful sample of nine participants was involved for the duration of one year.

Thematic analysis of findings from the focus groups produced collective themes of “exclusion”, “taking stock” and “moving on”. Similar analysis of interview transcripts plus Labovian analysis of selected narrative segments revealed issues concerning identity with strong adherence to the values of lifelong learning. Dissonance was evident between political and personal narratives.

This study adds to knowledge about collaborative initiatives with older people. New findings include the perceptions of older people about lifelong learning policy and how that plus learning and educational trajectories impact upon learning in later life. Innovative methods of collecting findings occurred and the substantive collection of learning and educational narratives conveyed information about historical contexts and personal epiphanies about learning

Suggestions for further work include exploring the relationship between learning and wellbeing, exploration of factors that transform entrenched themes about learning and education and inquiry into aspects that constrain or facilitate personal and collective agency in later life.

Jill Schoeberlein

Dr. Mitchell Kelly

Educational Psychology

7 December 2005

My Research Based Philosophy of Teaching

A good teacher is… there are a multitude of ways to finish that sentence. There are many factors that go into learning how to be an effective teacher and many different issues to consider. This paper reflects my current philosophy of teaching and the things that have contributed to it throughout this semester and through my own research. I feel as though I will continue to refine this philosophy during my stay in the program and am looking forward to being able to continually have experiences that will help me to do so throughout my career.

Understanding how students develop is an important part of teaching because every classroom will encounter different students at different developmental levels; understanding where each of these students is will help the teacher instruct them effectively. As a future special education teacher I think that this is an area that will be particularly helpful for me. I will need to be able to differentiate between when a student has a learning disability or if the student is not developmentally ready for the material. Being able to make this distinction could have a big impact on the life of a student.

Piaget’s stages of development offer a model by which teachers can estimate what children should and should not be able to do. Understanding what is involved in the each of the stages is important in assessing what a student is ready to undertake. As an elementary teacher I will be dealing mostly with students in the six to twelve year old age range, these ages fall into two different Piagetian stages, preoperational and concrete operational (Woolfolk 32). During the preoperational stage concepts such as “language development, symbolic form, one way logical thinking, and difficulties seeing other points of view” are important milestones (32). While in the concrete operational stage a student should have the “ability to solve concrete problems, understands reversibility, and understands conservation, and how to classify and seriate” (32). Understanding where a student is within these stages could help explain why they could or could not do certain things and what instruction would be best for them. This is referred to as “the problem of the match” where “students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand” (41). While I don’t believe that classifying students solely by age is an effective way to determine what they should be capable of, these age ranges can be a good basis on how to best cater to students developmental needs.

Vygotksy’s theory of social development is also helpful in the classroom setting. “Vygotksy believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot be understood away from these settings” (Woolfolk 45). It is important to realize that every student in a classroom comes from a home culture that has helped the student make sense of the world in a certain way. Understanding the way that they view the world is crucial to being able to instruct them correctly. It is also important to note that your interactions with the student also help the student shape their views on the new things that they are learning. One of Vygotsky’s ideas that I will utilize in my classroom is his idea of the “zone of proximal development” (52). This is the “area where the child cannot solve a problem alone, but can be successful under adult guidance” (52). Letting a child work within their zone of proximal development is a way to help them achieve new goals, but the line between frustration and success is a fine one, the teacher needs to keep close watch so children can achieve new things without becoming so frustrated that they quit.

A multicultural education is something that I will strive to give my students. I will reject the “melting pot” model that is the norm in many schools (Woolfolk 154). The idea that different cultures should try to mainstream into American ways needs to stop being taught to young children. I think that it makes children believe that the American way is the only right way and sets them up for looking down upon people who do not conform to this way. I will not fall into the habit of simply doing cultural units such as studying about Mexico or Hanukah, but truly integrate a multicultural approach into my teaching. This cannot be done only by considering what I will teach, but also how I will teach it. James Banks offers five dimensions of a multicultural education which include “content integration, the knowledge construction process, equity pedagogy, prejudice reduction, and an empowering school culture” (155). These five areas support the whole multicultural picture and not solely the curriculum. They focus on learning and accepting diversity and helping the teacher most effectively teach in a multicultural classroom.

James Banks also believes that in order for teachers to effectively participate in a child’s multicultural education, the teacher needs to be highly educated in understanding the way multiculturalism works in America. Banks discusses this in his article Diversity Within Unity,

“Professional development programs should help teachers understand the complex characteristics of ethnic groups within U.S. society and the ways in which race, ethnicity, language, and social class interact to influence student behavior. Continuing education about diversity is especially important for teachers because of the increasing cultural and ethnic gap that exists between the nation's teachers and students.”

Learning about multiculturalism is important for a majority of teachers because many do not come from the same backgrounds as the children that they teach, it is a difficult thing to teach what you don’t already know. Continuing to learn about this subject after a teacher leaves college is also important because of America’s continually changing cultural dimensions.

Bullying in our schools has become a national problem with school violence increasing to a deadly point in the past years. Somewhere in the lives of the students that commit school violence and bully other children something has gone wrong. The idea of caring for other people and valuing other people’s feelings and opinions is something that I think should be included in the curriculum from kindergarten to graduation. I think that there is a lot of intolerance for things that differ from the norm in our schools and people are afraid to step on any toes and talk about these things, but I feel that students could benefit greatly from hearing adults be tolerant of different viewpoints and things that differ from their own lives. Nel Noddings believes that incorporating caring in the curriculum could have lasting affects on students,

“To have as our educational goal the production of caring, competent, loving, lovable people is not anti-intellectual; it demonstrates respect for the full range of human talents. Not all human beings are good at or interested in math, science, or literature. But all can be helped to lead lives of deep concern for others, for the natural world and its creatures, and for the preservation of the human-made world. All can be led to develop the skills and knowledge necessary to make positive contributions, regardless of their occupation.”

I think the message that Noddings is sending is an important one, while not every child will excel in academics and even if a school can’t produce a multitude of college bound scholars, they can teach their students how to treat and respect people, skills that help you wherever you go in life.

Noddings suggests beginning learning about caring in the elementary grades with units devoted to caring and building on them throughout schooling “we might include units on love, friendship, and parenting; under caring for strangers and global others, we might study war, poverty, and tolerance” (Noddings). These themes can be maintained in later grades by forming interdisciplinary teams in high schools that specialize units of care into their own subjects. I feel that dealing with school violence and bullying needs to start from the ground up and the only way to expect students to care for one another is to make sure they know how to do so.

Classroom management is an essential part of a teacher’s success in the classroom. Woolfolk lists three areas that a classroom management strategy should emphasize, “more time for learning, access to learning, and management for self-management” (397-399). “Almost every study examining time and learning has found a significant relationship between time spent on content and student learning;” the amount of time students spend being instructed and being active in class is definitely going to affect the way that they learn and remember the information (397). To tackle this aspect of classroom management I plan to let my students help determine classroom rules and consequences for breaking the rules. Also during orientation this semester we watched a video of a teacher that gave her students “transition points” for moving from one activity to another quickly. I think this was a very effective strategy, because in elementary classrooms especially, those few minutes that it should take can often turn into many more.

As a special education teacher providing all my students with accessible material and learning is important because my students will have a variety of special needs that may make them less likely to participate in the classroom. Woolfolk writes “for some students, particularly those with behavioral and emotional challenges, direct teaching and practicing of the important [classroom] behaviors may be required” (398). Some children with special needs as well as children with different cultural backgrounds may simply not know how to positively participate in class. I will discuss with my students what will be the correct ways of participating in class and practice ways of doing so. I will take the extra time to make this known to students that are having trouble remembering and get to know each of their learning styles personally, so I do not pass judgment on something that I do not understand.

Giving students a set way to monitor themselves and know what is asked of them, without having to constantly be told is another big goal of classroom management. Whether this is done by posting rules in a place where they can be seen, having students help set rules, or keeping track of their own homework and supplies. These things in practice will create a sense of ownership and responsibility for the students “through self-control, students demonstrate responsibility – the ability to fulfill their own needs without interfering with the rights and needs of others” (399). With this kind of information to back the importance of classroom management I think that this subject will be one of the things that I pay the most attention to when I get my first teaching job.

After classroom management one of my main concerns is getting students involved and interested in learning. If students are not actively involved in the activity or lesson they will not benefit as much from it. If they get the chance to chose material they are more apt to express interest and desire to study. Investigating personal interests can help teachers make choices about curriculum that agree with students. Another way that I think will be successful in getting students interested in their work is through the use of “authentic tasks and problem-based learning” (Woolfolk 376). By asking my students questions that could apply to their own lives or about topics that they are interested in, I feel as though I will increase motivation to learn.

Helping kids fit into their surroundings and understanding why they act how they do is an important part of being able to motivate them in the most effective ways. Maslow’s hierarchy is a humanistic approach to human motivation (Woolfolk 353). “Maslow’s theory does give us a way of looking at the whole student, who’s physical, emotional, and intellectual needs are all interrelated” (353). All these areas are important because when one of them is affected, the rest of them may be affected too. If a child is hungry or being bullied on the playground they may be so preoccupied with this that they don’t get their school work done or can’t pay attention in class. Being aware of what is going on with students inside and outside of the classroom is important because it often affects their classroom behavior greatly.

After my students know what is expected of them in the classroom, how to assess the work that they complete is another factor to consider. After getting to know the students it may be easy to let other factors contribute to grading. What grade do you give a student that tries very hard but just can’t seem to get the material? Or a student that is smart but won’t exert any effort is class? These two students seem to be on total opposite end of the effort spectrum, but does that mean their grades should be too, even if they earned similar scores? I feel that being fair and keeping an objective approach should be at the top of every teacher’s grading policy because, “attributions a teacher makes about the causes of student successes or failures can affect the grades that students receive” (Woolfolk 572). As we discussed in class, the effort that is put behind these grades should not be one of the criteria to determine the student’s actual score. If effort does need to be assessed, it could be done by a separate report card category labeled as “effort in the classroom.” Our discussion during class really helped me see where letting feelings into grading can cause problems; when a parent comes in to talk about their child’s grade, you cannot state that you gave a child a bad grade because they are lazy or you don’t like the child. Only a grade based on objective standards and procedures will stand up to the test of a parent conference.

Keeping this philosophy about grading in mind, I have devised some rules and ideas that I plan to implement in my classroom. For projects and assignments outside of routine daily work I will utilize scoring rubrics because I feel that they are a way to let my students know exactly what I expect from them and also to ensure that they are aware of the areas they need to improve in. I also plan to let my students help me when deciding what the criteria of the rubrics should be, “when students participate, the are challenged to decide what quality work looks or sounds like in a particular area. They know in advance what is expected” (559). With special education students I think that this process would be valuable so that the students know and can be reminded of what they need to do in order to be successful, similar to the way that I would boost their understanding of classroom behaviors by teaching directly towards those behaviors.
I also think that special education students could benefit from the portfolio style of grading daily work. Portfolios are “a systematic collection of work, often including work in progress, revisions, student self-analyses, and reflections on what the student has learned” (Woolfolk 556). Keeping track of student’s progress is an essential part of the job of a special education teacher for IEP and program planning reasons, but also could be beneficial to the student so that they could see the progress that they had made throughout the grading period and year. They could then recognize small achievements that might go unnoticed if they were only assessed by tests.
Within my special education classroom the labeling of students with disabilities is something that I will come into contact with everyday. I think it is an important issue because it can become a “self-fulfilling prophecy” for a child (Woolfolk 106). In my classroom I don’t think a child should ever be referred to as a term or medical definition to his or her face. They will all have names, personalities, and lives that can’t be described simply with a two word phrase. I believe that labels are for paperwork and legal matters and don’t belong in the classroom on a day to day basis. When labeling is necessary I think that Woolfolk’s use of “person-first” language is important (106). With terms such as “students with mental retardation” or “a person with epilepsy” the emphasis is placed on the person and not the disability (106).

As I have demonstrated there are many things that go into making a good teacher that has an effective teaching style. There are many more things that should be discussed when deciding what makes a good teacher and I think that a majority of them are learned through experience and overcoming problems that arise with your students. Always continuing to learn and reach new goals in my classroom will be a philosophy that I will truly commit to throughout my career in education.

Works Cited

Banks, James A., Cookson, Peter, Gay, Geneva, Hawley, Willis D., Irvine, Jacqueline Jordan,
Nieto, Sonia, Schofield, Janet Ward, Stephan, Walter G. (2001) Diversity Within Unity:

Essential Principles For Teaching and Learning In a Multicultural Society. Phi Delta Kappan

v83 p196.

Noddings, Nel. (1995) Teaching Themes of Caring. Education Digest. v61 p24.

Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology 9th Ed. Pearson Allyn & Bacon.

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You can access different parts of Lesson 11 by clicking on the links below.

Instructional Design Based on Assessment Data II
Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment
Discussion and Learning Activities - 1
Discussion and Learning Activities - 2
Discussion and Learning Activities - 3
Discussion and Learning Activities - 4
Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?
Assessment: Lesson 11 Assignment
Lesson References
Focus Questions
· How can I collect and use data to determine and meet my students' learning needs?
· What are the differences between traditional assessments and alternative assessments?
· How can I use performance assessments, portfolios, diagnostic assessments, and authentic assessments in my classes?
· How do you effectively grade alternative assessments?
· How do I provide feedback to my students? Is that feedback timely, specific and frequent?
· What are the differences between assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning?
Assessment Your students' knowledge should be assessed prior to instruction (pre-assessments), and their learning progress should be assessed frequently during the course of instruction (formative assessment) as well as at the end of the instruction (often referred to as summative assessment). Ideally, the formative and summative assessments are best developed at the same time as the learning objectives, so that objectives and assessments are aligned. Following that, the instruction is developed to meet both the needs of the learners (as defined by the objectives and determined through pre-assessments) and the demands of the assessments. Since assessment is such a big part of instruction, it pays to take time to consider how to pre-assess your students' knowledge, and how and when you will conduct both formative and summative assessments. This lesson will give you detailed information on developing, administering and monitoring assessments.
Instructions You have several articles and pdf chapters to read for this lesson. One week has been allotted to allow you time to complete the readings and assignment. To proceed with this lesson, do the following:
1. Read and reflect on the focus questions above;
2. Read and consider the Lesson 11 learning objectives, below, to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson;
3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:
[yourPID]_edfdns11.doc
4. Read screens 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 of this online lesson and complete the learning activities described;
5. Complete the lesson readings, which consist of articles and pdf chapters linked from the online content of this lesson;
6. Complete your copy of the assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen.
Lesson Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson, you will...
· be familiar with the meaning of the terms "pre-assessment," "norm-referenced" and "criterion-referenced," "formative and summative assessment," and "alternative assessments;"
· consider how you can collect and [[use assessment data to diagnose your students' learning needs and adjust your instruction]] to meet those needs;
· incorporate methods for designing good assessments into your instructional design;
· consider how you could use both traditional and alternative formative and summative assessments to guide your students' learning;
· consider how you provide feedback to your students on assessments and whether it is adequate for their improvement;
· consider different grouping strategies adjustable learning elements to meet the needs of diverse learners in your classroom;
all of which will enable you to...
synthesize your learning in this lesson and use the tools presented to complete
an adjustable learning grid for a portion of your content.

Assessment to Collect Data
Classroom assessment involves collecting data from your students on their experiences as learners both prior to your class and in your class. Assessments are necessary to gauge the progress of your students in meeting the goals of the curriculum. It is important to also remember that the nature and focus of those assessments communicate what is important to students. As noted in the previous lesson, you should make a distinction between assessment FOR learning (assessments conducted during instruction to guide instruction and remediation) and assessment OF learning (testing to determine what a student has learned).
Assessments can be described in three broad categories:
· Pre-assessments - to determine where to start the instruction for your students,
· Formative assessments - which are basically assessment FOR learning, and
· Summative assessments - which represent assessment OF learning.
In addition to data from existing performance measures discussed in Lesson 10, teachers should conduct un-graded pre-assessments prior to their instruction. They can then use the performance measure data and the data from the pre-assessments diagnostically to:
· make sure students have the necessary pre-requisite knowledge,
· gauge students' prior knowledge of the new content to be taught, and
· determine whether some students in the class know much more than others about the content to be presented.
Pre-assessments can include such measures as pre-tests that match or are similar to the final test, quizzes, inventories or surveys, skill performances, teacher observations, journal entries, or worksheets such as the KWL (what do I Know?, what do I Want to know?, and what did I Learn?).
Formative assessments are used during the course of instruction to gauge learning and determine what topics should be re-visited. While the results of formative assessments may be recorded by the teacher, they are not generally recorded as a grade. Rather, they are used primarily to encourage learning and to aid the teacher in diagnosing student understanding. Formative assessments:
1. Help both teachers and students monitor progress;
2. Help teachers grasp students' knowledge and preconceptions and design instruction accordingly;
3. Provide students with an opportunity to revise and improve their thinking; and
4. Enable teachers to identify potential problems in students' critical literacy and comprehension that require remediation (Bridglall, 2001).
Summative assessments refer to the final test taken to determine mastery and to assign a grade. Teachers should also use summative assessments to determine the quality of their own instruction by noting what percentage of the class was able to learn the material.
Effective assessments should be:
· designed to be a learning experience for the student (who learns more through the process) and the teacher (who learns about the effectiveness of the instruction);
· aligned with the learning outcomes defined for the instruction, and should therefore be linked to the applicable standards; and
· known in advance by the learners (i.e., "tell them what content they will learn, teach them the content, and then test them on the content").
Two terms you should know and understand that are used to describe tests are "norm-referenced" and "criterion-referenced." Norm-referenced tests measure the performance of a student against other students, and scores for a particular student are determined by comparing their performance to that of students in the group used to establish the norms. Norms are based on a bell curve, so the same percentage of students will score in the 90th percentile as will score in the 10th percentile. Norm-referenced scores are thus typically reported in percentiles, and examples include the SAT and ACT tests (e.g., "Suzanne was in the 96th percentile on the ACT").
Norm-referenced tests, such as standardized achievement tests, are typically given yearly and are intended for large scale assessment of the instruction such as that dictated by the No Child Left Behind Act (Gottleib, 2003). The current demand for "accountability" is satisfied through these standardized tests. They are not usually used to diagnose the specific weaknesses or strengths of the instruction, since there are rarely enough questions on a specific learning objective to be able to judge whether the student has a firm grasp of the concept. To illustrate this aspect of norm-referenced tests, Chase (1999) claims that there should be at least ten test items for any one learning objective (such as an aspect of grammar structure) for the test results to adequately inform instruction. If standardized tests were to devote ten questions to every specific objective, they would require many days or even weeks to complete.
Criterion-referenced tests, however, are absolute measures of a student's performance based on specific criteria (learning objectives), and the number of correct or incorrect answers on the test determines whether students pass or fail the test. Criterion-referenced tests can show a learner's progress over time, and as such are valuable tools for teachers to use in designing and revising instruction to meet individual student needs.

Using Data Diagnostically There are as many ways to gather data as there are teachers.&nbsp; Some use checklists to gather data every day on attendance, participation and conduct. Others use formative assessments to diagnose the progress of individual students toward mastery of the learning objectives. Still others plot and analyze test data over time to reveal patterns of understanding or misunderstanding that help them revise their instruction. All of these methods are valid, although they all yield different types of data that can be used to address different issues. What ultimately makes that data worthwhile is its analysis and wise application to solve educational problems and meet student needs. Consider this hierarchy, referred to in many fields as DIKW:
Data consists of raw observations and measurements.
(example: Susie's scores on reading comprehension tests and spelling tests)
Information results when data is analyzed to answer "who - what - where - when - why" questions about the relationships and connections between the data.
(example: Susie appears to have no trouble comprehending what she reads, but she has significant problems with spelling)
Knowledge is created through the application of that information; it is the answer to "how?"
(example: the teacher recognizes that these discrepancies in scores may indicate that Susie has a learning disability and recommends her for special testing)
Wisdom is knowing when and why to use knowledge to solve problems.
(example: a school learning specialist conducts tests and determines that Susie has a learning disability; she then works with Susie's teacher to come up with accommodations that will help Susie succeed in school)
Your goal in gathering classroom data is to use it diagnostically to determine your students' needs and then revise your instruction to meet those needs. In addition, educational research studies are good sources to consult for how data has been applied successfully to solve classroom challenges. Such studies are available through a variety of sources (such as those listed in the "Where Can I Find Out More" sections of the lessons in this course). To use the information from these studies effectively, though, you must become an informed consumer of the research, able to evaluate the reliability of such studies and their applicability to your situation. Part of being an informed consumer of research involves being familiar with the terminology used in these reports. You can access a helpful glossary of research terms such as "mean," "effect size," "standard deviation," and "significance" through the website of the Center for Applied Research in Educational Technology (CARET) or by going to http://ags.pearsonassessments.com/glos/stat.asp .
To view a helpful example of how one high school teacher uses data to diagnose her students' needs, click here.
One Design for Pre-Assessments or Formative Assessments
Marzano (2006) has several recommendations for what to include in formative assessments to enable you to diagnose student learning. The type of items he mentions can also be included in pre-assessments. They include:
· Type I items - items that address basic details and processes that are relatively easy for students
· Type II items - items that address more complex ideas and processes and are more difficult for students
· Type III items - items that go beyond what was taught in class (p. 44-45)
Including such items on an assessment can give you a good idea of where each student is with respect to the content. Rather than assign grades for each assessment, you analyze student response patterns for a specific topic and translate them into a scale that represents the student's progression of understanding and skill for that topic, thus indicating where remediation or further challenge is indicated for that student. For example, Marzano suggests a scale that assigns ratings of Advanced, Proficient, Basic, and Below Basic (ibid, p. 58).
If students have no trouble answering the type I and II questions, they can be considered Proficient in their understanding and application of the information covered in class. If they are also able to answer the type III questions, they should be considered Advanced in their grasp of the concepts. If they have no major errors or omissions on the simpler details and processes but have major errors or omissions regarding the more complex ideas and processes, they can be considered to be at the Basic level, and if they have only a partial understanding of the simpler details and processes even with help, they are at a Below Basic level. The learning activities below prompt you to read about and use a similar scale designed by Gregory and Kuzmich (2004). You can decide which scale, or combination of scales, works best for you as you diagnose your students' understanding of the content.

Advanced Proficient Basic Below Basic
Easily answers Type I, II & III questions Has no trouble answering Type I and Type II questions No major errors or omissions on the simpler details & processes, but major errors or omissions on more complex ideas & processes Has only a partial understanding of simpler details & processes, even with help

Learning Activity: Building a Knowledge Base

1. Pre-Assessments & Adjustable Assignments - Read the following chapter from the Gregory & Kuzmich (2004) book, Data Driven Differentiation: Chapter 5 - Adjustable Assignments for Differentiated Learning, pp. 115-132 (17 pp.). As you read, take note of how the authors describe the use of pre-assessment data to determine what students know and the use of adjustable assignments and flexible grouping to manage the differences in learner knowledge and skills. As part of your Lesson 11 assignment, you will be asked to develop an adjustable learning grid and a grouping plan for your content and students, similar to that described in this chapter. For that assignment, you will also want to refer back to Chapter 3 (assigned in Lesson 10) where the learning grid and pre-assessments were first introduced.
2. Data Savvy Teachers - Access the attached "How Teachers Can Be Data Savvy" and consider which of the measures and questions described could be used by you to plan effective instruction. Save your ideas for the Lesson 11 assignment.
3. Using Student Data to Improve Achievement - Access and read any TWO of the following short articles on using student data to improve achievement. As you read, take note of details on how to adjust your instruction based on assesment data and ways you could apply the concepts from the articles in your classroom practice. Record your answers and save them to include in the Lesson 11 assignment.
Bray, B. (2005). Data can drive development: How does data relate to improved classroom instruction?&nbsp; Technology & Learning, 25(11), 10-12.
Brimijoin, K., Marquissee, E., & Tomlinson, C.A. (2003). Using data to differentiate instruction.&nbsp; 70-73.
Elwood, J. (2006). Formative assessment: Possibilities, boundaries and limitations.&nbsp; Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 13(2), 215-232.
Guskey, T.R. (2003). How classroom assessments improve learning.&nbsp; Educational Leadership, 60(5), 6-11.
Kadel, R. (2004). Statistics for success.&nbsp; Learning & Leading with Technology, 31(6), 6-9.
Neill, M. (2003). The dangers of testing. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 43-46.
Parsons, C.V., & DeLucia, J.M. (2005). Decision making in the process of differentiation.&nbsp; Learning & Leading with Technology, 8-10.
(NOTE: this article recommends using www.formsite.com to develop web-based surveys. You may also wish to use the free VT survey tool accessed at http://www.survey.vt.edu )
Popham, W.J. (2003). The seductive allure of data. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 48-51.
4. Scenario:&nbsp; Pre-Assessing Learning Needs - Read the attached scenario worksheet and respond to the questions and exercises listed. Save your answers to the scenario worksheet in a Word file named with your PID (for example: smith07_scenario11.doc). You will be asked to post a message to the discussion board for this lesson with this file as an attachment (Screen 7 of this lesson).

Traditional and Alternative Assessments
Your "toolbox" of instructional design strategies should include both traditional assessments to determine your students' learning progress, and alternative assessments that can be used both for formative and summative assessment. There are a wide variety of definitions for what constitutes traditional assessment, as opposed to alternative assessment. For this discussion, traditional assessments are those for which students choose a response from a given list, such as multiple-choice, true/false, or matching (NCREL, 2004, available at: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/as8lk30.htm ). These are usually large-scale, standardized assessments that are developed to measure general language skills or knowledge, as opposed to achievement in a particular subject area (Genesee & Upshur, 1996). They may also be textbook-generated assessments that are easily graded, providing the number of correct and incorrect answers, but very little insight on the specific topics about which a student lacks knowledge and requires remediation.
An alternative assessment is one in which students create a response to a question or task (NCREL, 2004). Alternative assessments may require students to answer open-ended questions, work out a solution to a problem, demonstrate a skill, produce a paper or project, or collect samples of their work in a portfolio. Alternative assessments are sometimes referred to as "authentic assessments" or "holistic assessments," because they are closer to the performance assessments that students will experience in the "real world." The use of alternative assessments can provide a more accurate picture of student progress and areas where remediation may be required. Such assessments can also be used to address the issue of equity in assessing and interpreting student performance.

Alternative Assessments for Students With Disabilities
Note that some sources refer to alternative assessments as those designed to accommodate students with learning and other disabilities. You will learn more about such assessments in Lesson 9 of this course. However, you should be aware of Virginia's VGLA - the Virginia Grade Level Alternative. This assessment is provided as an alternative for students in grades 3 through 8 whose nature and level of disability prevent them from participating in the regular Virginia SOL (Standards of Learning) tests. The VGLA is not a paper and pencil test, but rather is a Collection of Evidence (COE), sort of a portfolio, of student work that demonstrates to a scoring team that the student has demonstrated proficiency in the SOLs for a specific content area. There are specific requirements for qualifying for the VGLA. You can learn more about the assessment and the qualifications by going to:

http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/Assessment/VGLA/VGLA_Q_A.pdf

Both traditional and alternative assessments can be formal; that is, graded by the instructor, using established scoring and interpretation rules. They can also be informal; carried out for the purpose of gauging and improving learning, during the course of a class period, through such means as questions and discussions, informal teacher observations of individuals or group work processes, or through peer- or self-assessment.
Other assessment terms with which you should be familiar include:
Performance assessments - Performance assessments are practical examinations that require a performance or exhibit, which features legitimate and contextualized tasks.
Portfolios - A portfolio is an organized collection of evidence of student work, that reflects a student’s range of accomplishments and activities. The format of a portfolio can be paper-, project-, or electronic-based.&nbsp; Portfolios can be used by the teacher and student to monitor growth of the student's knowledge, skills, and attitudes in a specific subject area. Portfolios contain artifacts of the student's learning, including tests, lab reports, photographs, and meaningful journal entries. They may include reproductions such as videos of presentations and photos of projects. They may also include attestations of the student's progress produced by someone else, such as notes from the teacher or evaluations of student work by outside individuals. Finally, portfolios could also include productions or documents prepared specifically for the portfolio by the student, such as a goal statement or a personal reflection. For student-produced portfolios, the student would personally collect and select their best work to include in the portfolio, reflect on why they selected those materials and what they learned through the process of producing them, and then make a formal presentation of the portfolio contents.
Diagnostic assessments - Diagnostic assessments are designed to be formative – that is, conducted frequently for purposes of informing students of how they are doing so they can take steps to improve.&nbsp; For frequent, informal diagnostic assessments, teachers can use concept maps, minute papers, muddiest points, approximate analogies, interviews, journal writing, quizzes, etc. For example, note the variety of different diagnostic assessment techniques described at the following site: http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/cat.html Your readings for this lesson will highlight some of these techniques.
Authentic assessments - Assessments referred to as "authentic assessments," are designed to simulate realistic situations that exist in study, work, or life itself, and generally involve worthy problems or questions of importance along with all the legitimate constraints, options, and access to resources. Authentic assessment is generally designed to emphasize meaning making, relevant tasks and a commitment to improve.&nbsp;
Benchmark assessments - Throughout the year, teachers may give benchmark assessments to make sure that student progress is sufficient to pass the course SOL exam.&nbsp; Benchmark assessments are usually given three times a year, prior to the end-of-year exam. These exams measure students’ learning up to that point of the year, and allow the teacher to make predictions on the likelihood that a student will pass or fail the SOL assessment.&nbsp;Based on the results, teachers may decide to provide remediation for some students to ensure that they will be able to pass the SOL exam. &nbsp;Benchmark tests are frequently supplied by textbook publishers, based upon the SOL expectations. &nbsp;Some benchmark tests are teacher-created, while some are supplied by the school system’s curriculum department.
Assessment Formats
Assessments come in many formats: multiple choice, true/false, short answer and essay tests; projects and papers; portfolios, skills tests and more. Basically, there are three major types of assessments: quizzes and test items, academic prompts (questions), and performance tasks and projects. Quizzes and test items test a student's knowledge of facts, procedures and concepts. They usually have a single, best answer and can be easily scored using an answer key (or computer scoring). You can also test such knowledge in real-time during your instruction by having students raise hands, thumbs or cards to indicate answers to questions. This allows you to assess understanding and make adjustments immediately in your instruction.
Academic prompts are typically open-ended questions or problems, written or verbal, that prompt students to think critically about the topic and not merely recall knowledge. You can use academic prompts individually in exam conditions or with group work, moving from group to group to listen to conversations and correct misconceptions. Such problems are often ill-structured, requiring students to form a strategy to solve them and thus encouraging students to analyze, synthesize or evaluate information. They require a scoring system based on criteria and standards of performance, such as a rubric.
Performance tasks and projects are authentic assessments that require students to perform a real-life task or develop a product similar to those used in the "real world." They generally feature a real or simulated setting (sometimes in the form of a case study), require students to address an identified audience, are based on a purpose that relates to that audience, and should, again, be judged based on criteria and standards of performance. Examples include reports, portfolio collections, problem-solving exercises, and simulations.
Designing Good Assessments
Human nature being what it is, if students think they can guess the correct answers to a test, they will likely not study for it. Therefore, your assessments should not only accurately reflect your students' understanding of the content, but they should also be designed so that the answers are not easily guessed without adequate study of the material. If a student has merely skimmed a reading assignment, studied only summaries or highlighted words in a textbook, or scanned brief lecture notes, they likely do not have a firm grasp of the concepts. Avoid using test items with obvious answers, and design your tests to defeat the common strategies that students typically use to guess correct answers. When such easily-guessed test items are eliminated, actually learning the material becomes the easiest way to pass a test.
In addition, you must take care to use the right test format for the type of learning your students should exhibit. A case in point can be found in multiple choice tests. Typically, you should use multiple choice test questions when students must merely recognize the material as opposed to recalling the material. A multiple choice item would be appropriate when it is sufficient for the student to recognize the correct answer from a list of possible answers. If, however, the students must be able to recall the material from memory, you should use a fill-in-the-blank or essay question. If the multiple choice format is one you make use of regularly, you may wish to click here to view a list of "test-wise" strategies often used by students to "guess" the answers on a multiple-choice test. Take note of the methods recommended for defeating those strategies to make sure students actually learn the material (Dewey, n.d.).
Smith and others (2001) recommend that you design multiple-choice assessment items with the following guidelines in mind:
1. Make sure each item measures something worthwhile - something about which you have an instructional goal.
2. No tricks. (In other words, make sure that if you use the counter-strategies listed in the "test-wise" strategies attachment linked above, the wrong answers are clearly wrong and the right ones are clearly correct.)
3. Put all of the information in the question stem, so that the students know what problem they are working on before they get to the responses.
4. Use simple, concise language, with a readability level suitable to the audience.
5. Do not repeat words at the beginning of each option.
6. Try to resist using negations or other complicated or ambiguous language.
7. Be careful with your use of always, never, all of the above, none of the above, and so on. With some combinations, you run the risk of measuring the students' ability to work their way through your question rather than their knowledge of the content of the test.
8. For fill-in-the-blank types of items, place blanks or omissions at the end of the question stem rather than in the middle or beginning.
9. Vary the level of thinking involved in your items (remember Bloom's thinking levels?).
10. Make sure students have enough time.
11. Write the test and then wait a few days to go back over it, imagining that you are a student. This enables you to catch typos, ambiguities, unfair items, etc.
(pp. 60-61)
Keeping these elements in mind will enable you to design a multiple-choice assessment that is more likely to accurately test the students' recognition of the lesson material. The learning activities for this lesson will provide information on designing other types of traditional assessments and alternative assessments. Learning Activity:

Reading & Reflection Assignment
1. Read chapter 6, "Developing Assessment Tools" pp. 83-103 (21 pp.), from Reiser & Dick's book, Instructional Planning: A Guide for Teachers, available at the following link:

Reiser & Dick (1996). Developing Assessment Tools.

The authors describe different assessments for various types of learning outcomes (pp. 87-90). List examples of each that you use or could use with your content and students.
2. Alternative Assessments - Select and read ANY TWO of the following articles on alternative assessments. Read the article abstracts to determine which of the articles best fits your interests.&nbsp;Click on the author’s last name to access the articles, unless a URL is provided.&nbsp;After reading the article, briefly summarize it in a paragraph (be sure to include the citation), and then write another paragraph that specifies how you might apply the concepts from the article in your classroom practice. Save your writing to include in the Lesson 11 assignment.
Boston, C. (2002). The concept of formative assessment. ERIC Digest. (ED470206).
(Discusses a wide variety of formative assessments, many of which are alternative in nature.)
Carr, S.C. (2002). Assessing learning processes: Useful information for teachers and students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(3), 156-162.
Chang, K.E., Sung, Y.T., & Chen, S.F. (2001). Learning through computer-based concept mapping with scaffolding aid. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 17, 21-33.
Herman, J.L., & Winters, L. (1994). Portfolio research: A slim collection. Educational Leadership, 52(2), 48-55.
(Addresses how to make sure that the assessment of portfolios is technically reliable, consistent, meaningful, fair, and feasible.)

Hurwitz, C.L., & Abegg, G. (1999). A teacher's perspective on technology in the classroom: Computer visualization, concept maps and learning logs. Journal of Education, 181(2), 123-127.
Karge, B. (1998). Knowing what to teach: Using authentic assessment to improve classroom instruction. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 14(3).
Liu, E.Z., Zhuo, Y., & Yuan, S. (2004). &nbsp;Assessing higher-order thinking using a networked portfolio system with peer assessment.&nbsp; International Journal of Instructional Media, 31(2), 139-149. (Describes a project designed to assess high-order thinking through portfolios and peer assessment.)
Lockledge, A. (1997). Portfolio assessment in middle-school and high-school social studies classrooms.&nbsp; The Social Studies (Washington, D.C.), 88, 65-69.
(Describes the use of portfolios for social studies assessment of middle- and high-school students.)
Orr, J.C. (2005). Instant assessment: Using one-minute papers in lower-level classes. Pedagogy, 5(1), 108-115.
Smith, Carl B. (Ed.). (2003). Alternative forms of assessment. ERIC Topical Bibliography and Commentary. ERIC Document Reproduction Services, ED482404.
Stoddart, T., Abrams, R., Gasper, E., & Canaday, D. (2000). Concept maps as assessment in science inquiry learning - a report of methodology. International Journal of Science Education, 22(12), 1221-1246.
Lesson 11 – Scenario: Pre-Assessing Learning Needs

Instructions:
Complete Parts 1 and 2 of this scenario activity and post your work to the Lesson 11 Discussion Board Forum as an attachment. Do this by Thursday midnight of the lesson week.
Read the work of your course peers and post a response to at least one other post by Saturday midnight of the lesson week.
This activity and your discussion board post and reply are worth a total of 10 points.

PART 1
Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow in the space below, and then continue to page 2 for Part 2 of the assignment.

You are just about to begin a new school year.&nbsp; You have been given a roster of 112 students among your five classes (none are AP courses).&nbsp; There have been some 'leveling' placements due to the fact that 17 of your students are in other AP courses.&nbsp; Those students appear to be spread between two of your classes. You're not sure of the abilities of the students in any of your other classes, except that a Special Education teacher has been assigned to one of your classes.&nbsp; Before the first day of school, you need to have a handle of your student population.&nbsp;

How will you go about investigating the intellectual make-up of your five classes?&nbsp;
Then, how will you fine tune those initial findings?&nbsp;
What data do you need to gather on each of your students?&nbsp;
Where will you go to find that data?&nbsp;
Are there specific assessments you can administer to gain knowledge of your students' abilities and weaknesses within the first few weeks of school?&nbsp;

PART 2 -
Listed below are the previous year’s reading scores for a few of your students. Imagine that you have been informed that all teachers are responsible for making sure that at least 77% of students pass the reading SOL, regardless of subject area (a score of 400 or above is passing). Answer the following:

In the chart below, which students are having trouble with this challenge and how can you help them?
Write one or two objectives to indicate the competencies you believe they should develop to succeed. (Note: think about how you can provide reading practice and reading skills instruction in your content area.)

Eighth Grade Student Reading Data
2007-2008
Students English Report
Card Grade
May 06 English Report
Card
Grade
May 07 RPI
Sept 05 RPI
Feb 06 Benchmark
Reading
Nov 06 Benchmark
Reading
Feb 07 SOL
Reading
May 06 SOL
Reading
May 07 Stanford
9 Eng
Sept 04
Courtney B- B 72 78 73 82 475 425 80
Conner A A- 82 88 85 89 525 548 88
Aerial C- C- 65 68 70 74 401 412 66
Karl D D- 58 60 62 59 366 370 56
Tabitha B+ B 60 64 86 88 398 405 64
Note:
RPI = Reading Progress Indicator (criterion, diagnostic reading test): scored out of 100. This test has 50 questions, modeled in the SOL format.
Benchmark = Test that mimics VA SOL test; published by adopted textbook company.
SOL = 400 and above is ‘passing’ (State DOE considers any student in the 375 to 425 in the “recoverable” area of remediation for SOL success.)
Stanford 9 = (Norm-referenced) Based on 100 score.
For your school to meet AYP in Reading during the 2007-2008 school year, you will need 77% of your students to pass their Reading SOL. See table below.

AYP: Annual Measurable Objectives for Reading and Language Arts

2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Starting
Point &nbsp; &nbsp; Initial
Goal &nbsp; &nbsp; Initial
Goal &nbsp; &nbsp; Initial
Goal &nbsp; &nbsp; Goal
60.7% 61% 61% 65% 69% 73% 77% 81% 85% 89% 93% 97% 100%
This table shows Virginia’s annual measurable objectives for reading and language arts. For a school or school division to have made AYP during 2004-2005 at least 65 percent of students overall and students in each subgroup must have demonstrated proficiency on Standards of Learning (SOL) tests and other approved assessments in reading and language arts.

context
The instructional, organizational, and demographic setting in which a study takes place.
The extent to which a study includes information about context often determines how useful the findings will be to educational practice. Effective replication depends on knowing not only what technologies or techniques were used, but--among other details-- how the intervention was implemented, what alternatives were available, and what resources and constraints affected the outcomes.
educational technology
As used in CARET, educational technology refers to the full range of digital hardware and software used to support teaching and learning across the curriculum. That includes desktop, laptop, and handheld computers and applications; local networks and the Internet; and digital peripherals such as cameras, scanners, and adaptive devices. It generally does not include older analog media such as film and overhead projectors.
Note the difference from "technology education," which refers to specific training about technology itself, often as part of an industrial arts or vocational program.
effect size
A measure of how much one variable affects another.
Tests for significance can determine if an instructional practice makes a difference at all, but for purposes of comparing alternative approaches, it is important to know how much difference to expect. Effect size can be expressed in several ways, a common one being as a proportion of standard deviation. For example, if students take a test with a standard deviation of 100 and those who prepared using computer-assisted instruction (CAI) score an average of 30 points higher than those who studied using a conventional text, we would say the effect size of CAI was .3. Current research standards call for reporting effect sizes on any quantitative study. This allows readers to guage whether results have practical iimportance as well as statistical significance, and also allows other researchers to conduct a meta-analysis to compute an average effect size for similar studies. According to meta-analyses reviewed in CARET, average effect sizes of successful technology-based interventions range from around .2 to .6 standard deviation units.
evaluation
Research focused on assessing the merit and worth of particular programs or products.
Evaluation studies (Type 3 in CARET's taxonomy) may include both observational (Type 2) and experimental (Type 4) research. Evaluation is distinguished by its focus, which is often on how well particular interventions meet the needs of participating individuals and organizations, rather than on generalization to larger populations.
Of studies classified in the CARET Reading List, only about 7% are classified as Type 3. Unfortunately, many evauation studies are not published outside their programs, and consequently are not readily accessible.
experiment
The systematic manipulation of variables to test the effect on outcomes.
Ideally, in experimental studies, the individual subjects are chosen by random selection from the population and those subjects are randomly assigned to different treatment groups (e.g., classrooms with and without technology). This makes it more likely that results can be generalized to the population, and are not the result of any special characteristics of the particular participants. Experimental studies without random selection and assignment are sometimes referred to as "quasi-experimental."
In CARET, experimental and quasi-experimental studies are classified as Type 4 ("Formal Research"). About 12% of studies on the CARET Reading List fall in this category. Compare with Type 2, "Observational Studies."
mean
The sum of individual scores for a group divided by the number of cases or individuals. Much quantitative research in education involves comparing means on achievement, technology use, or other outcomes of interest.
The mean is a good predictor of performance when the distribution of scores is symmetrical on either side of the mean. The mean becomes harder to interpret when lots of individuals score above or below the mean (the distribution is skewed), or if there are large groups of individuals scoring at a particular level on either side of the mean. Careful quantitative research will mention any issues around meeting these assumptions. In reading less formal studies or reports, be cautious of mean comparisons when there is a wide range of scores, a large standard deviation, or a large percentage of individuals scoring above or below the mean. In some cases, it may be more useful to compare the most frequent score (the mode) or the score at which half the individuals scored higher and half lower (the median).
meta-analysis
A statistical technique for summarizing the results of multiple quantitative studies. A meta-analysis involves computing an effect size for the same variable in each of the studies and then calculating a mean effect for the variable.
An advantage of meta-analyses is that they have greater statistical power than individual studies to detect small but consistent effects. A disadvantage of meta-analyses is that they often do not specify the details of the instruction, technology use, or other context factors that will affect the observed outcomes.
In CARET, meta-analyses are currently classified under Type 2 with observational studies. This classification is under review, as by definition meta-analyses are made up exclusively of Type 4 (formal research) studies.
observational studies
Studies in which researchers collect data from existing situations or contexts, without manipulating variables.
Although these studies often employ surveys or qualitative rubrics, observational research can involve data that is quantitative or qualitative, empirical or subjective. CARET's Type 2 classification for observational or descriptive studies includes research that involves surveys, test scores, interviews, classroom observations, and portfolio assessment. The distinguishing characteristic is the investigation of conditions as the researcher finds them, as opposed to the creation of experiments.
About 27% of the articles on the CARET Reading List fall under Type 2, including meta-analyses of Type 4 experimental/quasi-experimental research.
power
A statistical term that refers to the ability of a comparison to identify real differences between groups. Power increases with sample size, one of the justifications for conducting large-scale studies and for pooling studies in meta-analyses.
random selection
The choosing of experimental subjects out of a population on the basis of chance.
Random selection is important because it makes it more likely that the subjects represent the population, that results of the experiment will generalize, and that any observed differences are the result of the experimental conditions and not some special characteristics of the particular individuals involved.
Random selection of student samples and random assignment of selected students to different treatments is often difficult in school settings because of logistical and equity concerns. Researchers often have to work around these limitations by using "quasi-experimental" designs in which pre-existing differences between groups are identified and factored out statistically.
significance
In technical research literature, the probability that an observed quantifiable difference between two groups could have occurred by chance. An effect is said to be significant if that probability is low—traditionally, less than .01 or .05.
The size of the difference necessary to achieve significance depends in large part on the number of cases or subjects (“N”) in the study: in general, the larger the N, the greater the power of a study to detect significant differences.
In reading education articles, it is important to distinguish statistical significance from educational significance. The latter term refers to the importance or relevance of a finding to educational decisions, and is the focus of the “Implications for Educators” section of CARET reviews.
standard deviation
Roughly, the average amount that individual scores vary from the mean.
The standard deviation is actually the square root of the variance (the sum of squared differences of all the individual scores from the mean divided by the degrees of freedom, N-1). Although sums of squares are the figures used in many advanced statistical formulas, the standard deviation, as defined above, provides a more intuitive indication of the extent to which scores vary. The standard deviation is also used in comparing results from different studies that use different measures. Any individual score or overall study effect size can be described in terms of how far it is from its mean in terms of proportion of standard deviation. *

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sortBy 'GroupTitle = tiddler.data("notetopic")
+"###"+tiddler.data("booktitle")'
script 'function getGroupTitle(tiddler, context) {
    if ( (context.lastGroup != "no subtopics") && (!context.lastGroup
|| context.lastGroup != tiddler.data("notetopic")))
{
        context.lastGroup = tiddler.data("notetopic");
        if (!context.lastGroup || context.lastGroup == "")
context.lastGroup = "no subtopics";
        return "!! "+context.lastGroup+"\n";
    } else return "";}'
write
'getGroupTitle(tiddler, context)+"** [["+tiddler.title+"]]\n"' 
>>

#Click on 'new note' in the sidebar to the right. 
#Give your note a title.
#Type the contents of your note underneath the {{{<<formTiddler NewTopicTemplate>>}}} code. Then click 'done' to go to viewing mode.
#Use the 'notetopic' and 'notetype' dropdown lists to tag your note so that "My Notes" knows what topic list to add it to, and what kind of note it is. You can apply multiple topics and note types to a note, so feel free to select all that apply.
#If the proper topic or note type is not available on the list, it's easy to add new ones. See [[Adding new topics and note types]].
#If desired, assign a specific subtopic to your note in the subtopic form field.
#If you need to identify the source for your note, add it to the Source form field. 

That's it!

<<formTiddler NewTopicTemplate>>
This is an example of a tab:

<<tabs txtFavourite
One "First tab" HelloThere
Two "Second tab" ThankYou
>><data>{"notetopic":"TiddlyWiki - goodies"}</data>

/***
|''Name''|CrossIndexingMacro|
|''Version''|0.7|
|''Status''|@@beta@@|
|''Author''|FND|
|''Source''|[[FND's DevPad|http://devpad.tiddlyspot.com/#CrossIndexingMacro]]|
|''License''|[[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/]]|
|''~CoreVersion''|2.1|
|''Type''|macro|
|''Requires''|N/A|
|''Overrides''|N/A|
|''Description''|[//TBD//]|
!Notes
Created [[for DaveG|http://groups.google.com/group/TiddlyWiki/browse_thread/thread/afa54bd105e791fa]]'s [[My Notes TiddlyWiki|http://www.giffmex.org/emptynotestw.html]].
!Usage
{{{
<<crossIndex [tag] [scope]>>
}}}
!Revision History
!!v0.5 (2008-02-08)
* initial release
!!v0.6 (2008-02-09)
* renamed to CrossIndexingMacro (from TiddlerHierarchyMacro)
* added listing of uncategorized items
* linkified headings
!!v0.7 (2008-02-10)
* added optional scope parameter
* fixed "uncategorized" listings
* minor code enhancements
!To Do
* rename
* documentation
* code sanitizing
!Code
***/
//{{{
config.macros.crossIndex = {};

config.macros.crossIndex.handler = function(place, macroName, params, wikifier, paramString, tiddler) {
	var scope = params[1] || tiddler.title;
	var index = this.getIndex(scope, params[0]);
	var output = "";
	var i;
	for(topic in index) {
		if(index[topic].length > 0) {
			output += "![[" + topic + "]]\n";
			for(i = 0; i < index[topic].length; i++) {
				output += "* [[" + index[topic][i] + "]]\n";
			}
		}
	}
	wikify(output, place);
}

config.macros.crossIndex.getIndex = function(scope, category) {
	// retrieve topics
	var topics = store.getTaggedTiddlers(category).map(function(t) { return t.title });
	// generate index
	var index = {
		uncategorized: []
	};
	for(i = 0; i < topics.length; i++) {
		index[topics[i]] = [];
		store.forEachTiddler(function(title, tiddler) {
			if(tiddler.tags.containsAll([scope, topics[i]]))
				index[topics[i]].push(title);
			else if(tiddler.tags.contains(scope) && !tiddler.tags.containsAny(topics))
				index.uncategorized.pushUnique(title);
		});
	}
	return index;
}
//}}}

/***
|''Name:''|CryptoFunctionsPlugin|
|''Description:''|Support for cryptographic functions|
***/
//{{{
if(!version.extensions.CryptoFunctionsPlugin) {
version.extensions.CryptoFunctionsPlugin = {installed:true};

//--
//-- Crypto functions and associated conversion routines
//--

// Crypto "namespace"
function Crypto() {}

// Convert a string to an array of big-endian 32-bit words
Crypto.strToBe32s = function(str)
{
	var be = Array();
	var len = Math.floor(str.length/4);
	var i, j;
	for(i=0, j=0; i<len; i++, j+=4) {
		be[i] = ((str.charCodeAt(j)&0xff) << 24)|((str.charCodeAt(j+1)&0xff) << 16)|((str.charCodeAt(j+2)&0xff) << 8)|(str.charCodeAt(j+3)&0xff);
	}
	while (j<str.length) {
		be[j>>2] |= (str.charCodeAt(j)&0xff)<<(24-(j*8)%32);
		j++;
	}
	return be;
};

// Convert an array of big-endian 32-bit words to a string
Crypto.be32sToStr = function(be)
{
	var str = "";
	for(var i=0;i<be.length*32;i+=8)
		str += String.fromCharCode((be[i>>5]>>>(24-i%32)) & 0xff);
	return str;
};

// Convert an array of big-endian 32-bit words to a hex string
Crypto.be32sToHex = function(be)
{
	var hex = "0123456789ABCDEF";
	var str = "";
	for(var i=0;i<be.length*4;i++)
		str += hex.charAt((be[i>>2]>>((3-i%4)*8+4))&0xF) + hex.charAt((be[i>>2]>>((3-i%4)*8))&0xF);
	return str;
};

// Return, in hex, the SHA-1 hash of a string
Crypto.hexSha1Str = function(str)
{
	return Crypto.be32sToHex(Crypto.sha1Str(str));
};

// Return the SHA-1 hash of a string
Crypto.sha1Str = function(str)
{
	return Crypto.sha1(Crypto.strToBe32s(str),str.length);
};

// Calculate the SHA-1 hash of an array of blen bytes of big-endian 32-bit words
Crypto.sha1 = function(x,blen)
{
	// Add 32-bit integers, wrapping at 32 bits
	add32 = function(a,b)
	{
		var lsw = (a&0xFFFF)+(b&0xFFFF);
		var msw = (a>>16)+(b>>16)+(lsw>>16);
		return (msw<<16)|(lsw&0xFFFF);
	};
	// Add five 32-bit integers, wrapping at 32 bits
	add32x5 = function(a,b,c,d,e)
	{
		var lsw = (a&0xFFFF)+(b&0xFFFF)+(c&0xFFFF)+(d&0xFFFF)+(e&0xFFFF);
		var msw = (a>>16)+(b>>16)+(c>>16)+(d>>16)+(e>>16)+(lsw>>16);
		return (msw<<16)|(lsw&0xFFFF);
	};
	// Bitwise rotate left a 32-bit integer by 1 bit
	rol32 = function(n)
	{
		return (n>>>31)|(n<<1);
	};

	var len = blen*8;
	// Append padding so length in bits is 448 mod 512
	x[len>>5] |= 0x80 << (24-len%32);
	// Append length
	x[((len+64>>9)<<4)+15] = len;
	var w = Array(80);

	var k1 = 0x5A827999;
	var k2 = 0x6ED9EBA1;
	var k3 = 0x8F1BBCDC;
	var k4 = 0xCA62C1D6;

	var h0 = 0x67452301;
	var h1 = 0xEFCDAB89;
	var h2 = 0x98BADCFE;
	var h3 = 0x10325476;
	var h4 = 0xC3D2E1F0;

	for(var i=0;i<x.length;i+=16) {
		var j,t;
		var a = h0;
		var b = h1;
		var c = h2;
		var d = h3;
		var e = h4;
		for(j = 0;j<16;j++) {
			w[j] = x[i+j];
			t = add32x5(e,(a>>>27)|(a<<5),d^(b&(c^d)),w[j],k1);
			e=d; d=c; c=(b>>>2)|(b<<30); b=a; a = t;
		}
		for(j=16;j<20;j++) {
			w[j] = rol32(w[j-3]^w[j-8]^w[j-14]^w[j-16]);
			t = add32x5(e,(a>>>27)|(a<<5),d^(b&(c^d)),w[j],k1);
			e=d; d=c; c=(b>>>2)|(b<<30); b=a; a = t;
		}
		for(j=20;j<40;j++) {
			w[j] = rol32(w[j-3]^w[j-8]^w[j-14]^w[j-16]);
			t = add32x5(e,(a>>>27)|(a<<5),b^c^d,w[j],k2);
			e=d; d=c; c=(b>>>2)|(b<<30); b=a; a = t;
		}
		for(j=40;j<60;j++) {
			w[j] = rol32(w[j-3]^w[j-8]^w[j-14]^w[j-16]);
			t = add32x5(e,(a>>>27)|(a<<5),(b&c)|(d&(b|c)),w[j],k3);
			e=d; d=c; c=(b>>>2)|(b<<30); b=a; a = t;
		}
		for(j=60;j<80;j++) {
			w[j] = rol32(w[j-3]^w[j-8]^w[j-14]^w[j-16]);
			t = add32x5(e,(a>>>27)|(a<<5),b^c^d,w[j],k4);
			e=d; d=c; c=(b>>>2)|(b<<30); b=a; a = t;
		}

		h0 = add32(h0,a);
		h1 = add32(h1,b);
		h2 = add32(h2,c);
		h3 = add32(h3,d);
		h4 = add32(h4,e);
	}
	return Array(h0,h1,h2,h3,h4);
};


}
//}}}

Type the text for 'New Tiddler'

/***
|''Name:''|DataTiddlerPlugin|
|''Version:''|1.0.6 (2006-08-26)|
|''Source:''|http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#DataTiddlerPlugin|
|''Author:''|UdoBorkowski (ub [at] abego-software [dot] de)|
|''Licence:''|[[BSD open source license]]|
|''TiddlyWiki:''|1.2.38+, 2.0|
|''Browser:''|Firefox 1.0.4+; InternetExplorer 6.0|
!Description
Enhance your tiddlers with structured data (such as strings, booleans, numbers, or even arrays and compound objects) that can be easily accessed and modified through named fields (in JavaScript code).

Such tiddler data can be used in various applications. E.g. you may create tables that collect data from various tiddlers. 

''//Example: "Table with all December Expenses"//''
{{{
<<forEachTiddler
    where
        'tiddler.tags.contains("expense") && tiddler.data("month") == "Dec"'
    write
        '"|[["+tiddler.title+"]]|"+tiddler.data("descr")+"| "+tiddler.data("amount")+"|\n"'
>>
}}}
//(This assumes that expenses are stored in tiddlers tagged with "expense".)//
<<forEachTiddler
    where
        'tiddler.tags.contains("expense") && tiddler.data("month") == "Dec"'
    write
        '"|[["+tiddler.title+"]]|"+tiddler.data("descr")+"| "+tiddler.data("amount")+"|\n"'
>>
For other examples see DataTiddlerExamples.




''Access and Modify Tiddler Data''

You can "attach" data to every tiddler by assigning a JavaScript value (such as a string, boolean, number, or even arrays and compound objects) to named fields. 

These values can be accessed and modified through the following Tiddler methods:
|!Method|!Example|!Description|
|{{{data(field)}}}|{{{t.data("age")}}}|Returns the value of the given data field of the tiddler. When no such field is defined or its value is undefined {{{undefined}}} is returned.|
|{{{data(field,defaultValue)}}}|{{{t.data("isVIP",false)}}}|Returns the value of the given data field of the tiddler. When no such field is defined or its value is undefined the defaultValue is returned.|
|{{{data()}}}|{{{t.data()}}}|Returns the data object of the tiddler, with a property for every field. The properties of the returned data object may only be read and not be modified. To modify the data use DataTiddler.setData(...) or the corresponding Tiddler method.|
|{{{setData(field,value)}}}|{{{t.setData("age",42)}}}|Sets the value of the given data field of the tiddler to the value. When the value is {{{undefined}}} the field is removed.|
|{{{setData(field,value,defaultValue)}}}|{{{t.setData("isVIP",flag,false)}}}|Sets the value of the given data field of the tiddler to the value. When the value is equal to the defaultValue no value is set (and the field is removed).|

Alternatively you may use the following functions to access and modify the data. In this case the tiddler argument is either a tiddler or the name of a tiddler.
|!Method|!Description|
|{{{DataTiddler.getData(tiddler,field)}}}|Returns the value of the given data field of the tiddler. When no such field is defined or its value is undefined {{{undefined}}} is returned.|
|{{{DataTiddler.getData(tiddler,field,defaultValue)}}}|Returns the value of the given data field of the tiddler. When no such field is defined or its value is undefined the defaultValue is returned.|
|{{{DataTiddler.getDataObject(tiddler)}}}|Returns the data object of the tiddler, with a property for every field. The properties of the returned data object may only be read and not be modified. To modify the data use DataTiddler.setData(...) or the corresponding Tiddler method.|
|{{{DataTiddler.setData(tiddler,field,value)}}}|Sets the value of the given data field of the tiddler to the value. When the value is {{{undefined}}} the field is removed.|
|{{{DataTiddler.setData(tiddler,field,value,defaultValue)}}}|Sets the value of the given data field of the tiddler to the value. When the value is equal to the defaultValue no value is set (and the field is removed).|
//(For details on the various functions see the detailed comments in the source code.)//


''Data Representation in a Tiddler''

The data of a tiddler is stored as plain text in the tiddler's content/text, inside a "data" section that is framed by a {{{<data>...</data>}}} block. Inside the data section the information is stored in the [[JSON format|http://www.crockford.com/JSON/index.html]]. 

//''Data Section Example:''//
{{{
<data>{"isVIP":true,"user":"John Brown","age":34}</data>
}}}

The data section is not displayed when viewing the tiddler (see also "The showData Macro").

Beside the data section a tiddler may have all kind of other content.

Typically you will not access the data section text directly but use the methods given above. Nevertheless you may retrieve the text of the data section's content through the {{{DataTiddler.getDataText(tiddler)}}} function.


''Saving Changes''

The "setData" methods respect the "ForceMinorUpdate" and "AutoSave" configuration values. I.e. when "ForceMinorUpdate" is true changing a value using setData will not affect the "modifier" and "modified" attributes. With "AutoSave" set to true every setData will directly save the changes after a setData.


''Notifications''

No notifications are sent when a tiddler's data value is changed through the "setData" methods. 

''Escape Data Section''
In case that you want to use the text {{{<data>}}} or {{{</data>}}} in a tiddler text you must prefix the text with a tilde ('~'). Otherwise it may be wrongly considered as the data section. The tiddler text {{{~<data>}}} is displayed as {{{<data>}}}.


''The showData Macro''

By default the data of a tiddler (that is stored in the {{{<data>...</data>}}} section of the tiddler) is not displayed. If you want to display this data you may used the {{{<<showData ...>>}}} macro:

''Syntax:'' 
|>|{{{<<}}}''showData '' [''JSON''] [//tiddlerName//] {{{>>}}}|
|''JSON''|By default the data is rendered as a table with a "Name" and "Value" column. When defining ''JSON'' the data is rendered in JSON format|
|//tiddlerName//|Defines the tiddler holding the data to be displayed. When no tiddler is given the tiddler containing the showData macro is used. When the tiddler name contains spaces you must quote the name (or use the {{{[[...]]}}} syntax.)|
|>|~~Syntax formatting: Keywords in ''bold'', optional parts in [...]. 'or' means that exactly one of the two alternatives must exist.~~|


!Revision history
* v1.0.6 (2006-08-26) 
** Removed misleading comment
* v1.0.5 (2006-02-27) (Internal Release Only)
** Internal
*** Make "JSLint" conform
* v1.0.4 (2006-02-05)
** Bugfix: showData fails in TiddlyWiki 2.0
* v1.0.3 (2006-01-06)
** Support TiddlyWiki 2.0
* v1.0.2 (2005-12-22)
** Enhancements:
*** Handle texts "<data>" or "</data>" more robust when used in a tiddler text or as a field value.
*** Improved (JSON) error messages.
** Bugs fixed: 
*** References are not updated when using the DataTiddler.
*** Changes to compound objects are not always saved.
*** "~</data>" is not rendered correctly (expected "</data>")
* v1.0.1 (2005-12-13)
** Features: 
*** The showData macro supports an optional "tiddlername" argument to specify the tiddler containing the data to be displayed
** Bugs fixed: 
*** A script immediately following a data section is deleted when the data is changed. (Thanks to GeoffS for reporting.)
* v1.0.0 (2005-12-12)
** initial version

!Code
***/
//{{{
//============================================================================
//============================================================================
//                           DataTiddlerPlugin
//============================================================================
//============================================================================

// Ensure that the DataTiddler Plugin is only installed once.
//
if (!version.extensions.DataTiddlerPlugin) {



version.extensions.DataTiddlerPlugin = {
    major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 6,
    date: new Date(2006, 7, 26), 
    type: 'plugin',
    source: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#DataTiddlerPlugin"
};

// For backward compatibility with v1.2.x
//
if (!window.story) window.story=window; 
if (!TiddlyWiki.prototype.getTiddler) {
	TiddlyWiki.prototype.getTiddler = function(title) { 
		var t = this.tiddlers[title]; 
		return (t !== undefined && t instanceof Tiddler) ? t : null; 
	};
}

//============================================================================
// DataTiddler Class
//============================================================================

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Configurations and constants 
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

function DataTiddler() {
}

DataTiddler = {
    // Function to stringify a JavaScript value, producing the text for the data section content.
    // (Must match the implementation of DataTiddler.parse.)
    //
    stringify : null,
    

    // Function to parse the text for the data section content, producing a JavaScript value.
    // (Must match the implementation of DataTiddler.stringify.)
    //
    parse : null
};

// Ensure access for IE
window.DataTiddler = DataTiddler;

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Data Accessor and Mutator
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------


// Returns the value of the given data field of the tiddler.
// When no such field is defined or its value is undefined
// the defaultValue is returned.
// 
// @param tiddler either a tiddler name or a tiddler
//
DataTiddler.getData = function(tiddler, field, defaultValue) {
    var t = (typeof tiddler == "string") ? store.getTiddler(tiddler) : tiddler;
    if (!(t instanceof Tiddler)) {
        throw "Tiddler expected. Got "+tiddler;
    }

    return DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataValue(t, field, defaultValue);
};


// Sets the value of the given data field of the tiddler to
// the value. When the value is equal to the defaultValue
// no value is set (and the field is removed)
//
// Changing data of a tiddler will not trigger notifications.
// 
// @param tiddler either a tiddler name or a tiddler
//
DataTiddler.setData = function(tiddler, field, value, defaultValue) {
    var t = (typeof tiddler == "string") ? store.getTiddler(tiddler) : tiddler;
    if (!(t instanceof Tiddler)) {
        throw "Tiddler expected. Got "+tiddler+ "("+t+")";
    }

    DataTiddler.setTiddlerDataValue(t, field, value, defaultValue);
};


// Returns the data object of the tiddler, with a property for every field.
//
// The properties of the returned data object may only be read and
// not be modified. To modify the data use DataTiddler.setData(...) 
// or the corresponding Tiddler method.
//
// If no data section is defined a new (empty) object is returned.
//
// @param tiddler either a tiddler name or a Tiddler
//
DataTiddler.getDataObject = function(tiddler) {
    var t = (typeof tiddler == "string") ? store.getTiddler(tiddler) : tiddler;
    if (!(t instanceof Tiddler)) {
        throw "Tiddler expected. Got "+tiddler;
    }

    return DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataObject(t);
};

// Returns the text of the content of the data section of the tiddler.
//
// When no data section is defined for the tiddler null is returned 
//
// @param tiddler either a tiddler name or a Tiddler
// @return [may be null]
//
DataTiddler.getDataText = function(tiddler) {
    var t = (typeof tiddler == "string") ? store.getTiddler(tiddler) : tiddler;
    if (!(t instanceof Tiddler)) {
        throw "Tiddler expected. Got "+tiddler;
    }

    return DataTiddler.readDataSectionText(t);
};


// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Internal helper methods (must not be used by code from outside this plugin)
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

// Internal.
//
// The original JSONError is not very user friendly, 
// especially it does not define a toString() method
// Therefore we extend it here.
//
DataTiddler.extendJSONError = function(ex) {
	if (ex.name == 'JSONError') {
        ex.toString = function() {
			return ex.name + ": "+ex.message+" ("+ex.text+")";
		};
	}
	return ex;
};

// Internal.
//
// @param t a Tiddler
//
DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataObject = function(t) {
    if (t.dataObject === undefined) {
        var data = DataTiddler.readData(t);
        t.dataObject = (data) ? data : {};
    }
    
    return t.dataObject;
};


// Internal.
//
// @param tiddler a Tiddler
//
DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataValue = function(tiddler, field, defaultValue) {
    var value = DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataObject(tiddler)[field];
    return (value === undefined) ? defaultValue : value;
};


// Internal.
//
// @param tiddler a Tiddler
//
DataTiddler.setTiddlerDataValue = function(tiddler, field, value, defaultValue) {
    var data = DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataObject(tiddler);
    var oldValue = data[field];
	
    if (value == defaultValue) {
        if (oldValue !== undefined) {
            delete data[field];
            DataTiddler.save(tiddler);
        }
        return;
    }
    data[field] = value;
    DataTiddler.save(tiddler);
};

// Internal.
//
// Reads the data section from the tiddler's content and returns its text
// (as a String).
//
// Returns null when no data is defined.
//
// @param tiddler a Tiddler
// @return [may be null]
//
DataTiddler.readDataSectionText = function(tiddler) {
    var matches = DataTiddler.getDataTiddlerMatches(tiddler);
    if (matches === null || !matches[2]) {
        return null;
    }
    return matches[2];
};

// Internal.
//
// Reads the data section from the tiddler's content and returns it
// (as an internalized object).
//
// Returns null when no data is defined.
//
// @param tiddler a Tiddler
// @return [may be null]
//
DataTiddler.readData = function(tiddler) {
    var text = DataTiddler.readDataSectionText(tiddler);
	try {
	    return text ? DataTiddler.parse(text) : null;
	} catch(ex) {
		throw DataTiddler.extendJSONError(ex);
	}
};

// Internal.
// 
// Returns the serialized text of the data of the given tiddler, as it
// should be stored in the data section.
//
// @param tiddler a Tiddler
//
DataTiddler.getDataTextOfTiddler = function(tiddler) {
    var data = DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataObject(tiddler);
    return DataTiddler.stringify(data);
};


// Internal.
// 
DataTiddler.indexOfNonEscapedText = function(s, subString, startIndex) {
	var index = s.indexOf(subString, startIndex);
	while ((index > 0) && (s[index-1] == '~')) { 
		index = s.indexOf(subString, index+1);
	}
	return index;
};

// Internal.
//
DataTiddler.getDataSectionInfo = function(text) {
	// Special care must be taken to handle "<data>" and "</data>" texts inside
	// a data section. 
	// Also take care not to use an escaped <data> (i.e. "~<data>") as the start 
	// of a data section. (Same for </data>)

    // NOTE: we are explicitly searching for a data section that contains a JSON
    // string, i.e. framed with braces. This way we are little bit more robust in
    // case the tiddler contains unescaped texts "<data>" or "</data>". This must
    // be changed when using a different stringifier.

	var startTagText = "<data>{";
	var endTagText = "}</data>";

	var startPos = 0;

	// Find the first not escaped "<data>".
	var startDataTagIndex = DataTiddler.indexOfNonEscapedText(text, startTagText, 0);
	if (startDataTagIndex < 0) {
		return null;
	}

	// Find the *last* not escaped "</data>".
	var endDataTagIndex = text.indexOf(endTagText, startDataTagIndex);
	if (endDataTagIndex < 0) {
		return null;
	}
	var nextEndDataTagIndex;
	while ((nextEndDataTagIndex = text.indexOf(endTagText, endDataTagIndex+1)) >= 0) {
		endDataTagIndex = nextEndDataTagIndex;
	}

	return {
		prefixEnd: startDataTagIndex, 
		dataStart: startDataTagIndex+(startTagText.length)-1, 
		dataEnd: endDataTagIndex, 
		suffixStart: endDataTagIndex+(endTagText.length)
	};
};

// Internal.
// 
// Returns the "matches" of a content of a DataTiddler on the
// "data" regular expression. Return null when no data is defined
// in the tiddler content.
//
// Group 1: text before data section (prefix)
// Group 2: content of data section
// Group 3: text behind data section (suffix)
//
// @param tiddler a Tiddler
// @return [may be null] null when the tiddler contains no data section, otherwise see above.
//
DataTiddler.getDataTiddlerMatches = function(tiddler) {
	var text = tiddler.text;
	var info = DataTiddler.getDataSectionInfo(text);
	if (!info) {
		return null;
	}

	var prefix = text.substr(0,info.prefixEnd);
	var data = text.substr(info.dataStart, info.dataEnd-info.dataStart+1);
	var suffix = text.substr(info.suffixStart);
	
	return [text, prefix, data, suffix];
};


// Internal.
//
// Saves the data in a <data> block of the given tiddler (as a minor change). 
//
// The "chkAutoSave" and "chkForceMinorUpdate" options are respected. 
// I.e. the TiddlyWiki *file* is only saved when AutoSave is on.
//
// Notifications are not send. 
//
// This method should only be called when the data really has changed. 
//
// @param tiddler
//             the tiddler to be saved.
//
DataTiddler.save = function(tiddler) {

    var matches = DataTiddler.getDataTiddlerMatches(tiddler);

    var prefix;
    var suffix;
    if (matches === null) {
        prefix = tiddler.text;
        suffix = "";
    } else {
        prefix = matches[1];
        suffix = matches[3];
    }

    var dataText = DataTiddler.getDataTextOfTiddler(tiddler);
    var newText = 
            (dataText !== null) 
                ? prefix + "<data>" + dataText + "</data>" + suffix
                : prefix + suffix;
    if (newText != tiddler.text) {
        // make the change in the tiddlers text
        
        // ... see DataTiddler.MyTiddlerChangedFunction
        tiddler.isDataTiddlerChange = true;
        
        // ... do the action change
        tiddler.set(
                tiddler.title,
                newText,
                config.options.txtUserName, 
                config.options.chkForceMinorUpdate? undefined : new Date(),
                tiddler.tags);

        // ... see DataTiddler.MyTiddlerChangedFunction
        delete tiddler.isDataTiddlerChange;

        // Mark the store as dirty.
        store.dirty = true;
 
        // AutoSave if option is selected
        if(config.options.chkAutoSave) {
           saveChanges();
        }
    }
};

// Internal.
//
DataTiddler.MyTiddlerChangedFunction = function() {
    // Remove the data object from the tiddler when the tiddler is changed
    // by code other than DataTiddler code. 
    //
    // This is necessary since the data object is just a "cached version" 
    // of the data defined in the data section of the tiddler and the 
    // "external" change may have changed the content of the data section.
    // Thus we are not sure if the data object reflects the data section 
    // contents. 
    // 
    // By deleting the data object we ensure that the data object is 
    // reconstructed the next time it is needed, with the data defined by
    // the data section in the tiddler's text.
    
    // To indicate that a change is a "DataTiddler change" a temporary
    // property "isDataTiddlerChange" is added to the tiddler.
    if (this.dataObject && !this.isDataTiddlerChange) {
        delete this.dataObject;
    }
    
    // call the original code.
	DataTiddler.originalTiddlerChangedFunction.apply(this, arguments);
};


//============================================================================
// Formatters
//============================================================================

// This formatter ensures that "~<data>" is rendered as "<data>". This is used to 
// escape the "<data>" of a data section, just in case someone really wants to use
// "<data>" as a text in a tiddler and not start a data section.
//
// Same for </data>.
//
config.formatters.push( {
    name: "data-escape",
    match: "~<\\/?data>",

    handler: function(w) {
            w.outputText(w.output,w.matchStart + 1,w.nextMatch);
    }
} );


// This formatter ensures that <data>...</data> sections are not rendered.
//
config.formatters.push( {
    name: "data",
    match: "<data>",

    handler: function(w) {
		var info = DataTiddler.getDataSectionInfo(w.source);
		if (info && info.prefixEnd == w.matchStart) {
            w.nextMatch = info.suffixStart;
		} else {
			w.outputText(w.output,w.matchStart,w.nextMatch);
		}
    }
} );


//============================================================================
// Tiddler Class Extension
//============================================================================

// "Hijack" the changed method ---------------------------------------------------

DataTiddler.originalTiddlerChangedFunction = Tiddler.prototype.changed;
Tiddler.prototype.changed = DataTiddler.MyTiddlerChangedFunction;

// Define accessor methods -------------------------------------------------------

// Returns the value of the given data field of the tiddler. When no such field 
// is defined or its value is undefined the defaultValue is returned.
//
// When field is undefined (or null) the data object is returned. (See 
// DataTiddler.getDataObject.)
//
// @param field [may be null, undefined]
// @param defaultValue [may be null, undefined]
// @return [may be null, undefined]
//
Tiddler.prototype.data = function(field, defaultValue) {
    return (field) 
         ? DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataValue(this, field, defaultValue)
         : DataTiddler.getTiddlerDataObject(this);
};

// Sets the value of the given data field of the tiddler to the value. When the 
// value is equal to the defaultValue no value is set (and the field is removed).
//
// @param value [may be null, undefined]
// @param defaultValue [may be null, undefined]
//
Tiddler.prototype.setData = function(field, value, defaultValue) {
    DataTiddler.setTiddlerDataValue(this, field, value, defaultValue);
};


//============================================================================
// showData Macro
//============================================================================

config.macros.showData = {
     // Standard Properties
     label: "showData",
     prompt: "Display the values stored in the data section of the tiddler"
};

config.macros.showData.handler = function(place,macroName,params) {
    // --- Parsing ------------------------------------------

    var i = 0; // index running over the params
    // Parse the optional "JSON"
    var showInJSONFormat = false;
    if ((i < params.length) && params[i] == "JSON") {
        i++;
        showInJSONFormat = true;
    }
    
    var tiddlerName = story.findContainingTiddler(place).id.substr(7);
    if (i < params.length) {
        tiddlerName = params[i];
        i++;
    }

    // --- Processing ------------------------------------------
    try {
        if (showInJSONFormat) {
            this.renderDataInJSONFormat(place, tiddlerName);
        } else {
            this.renderDataAsTable(place, tiddlerName);
        }
    } catch (e) {
        this.createErrorElement(place, e);
    }
};

config.macros.showData.renderDataInJSONFormat = function(place,tiddlerName) {
    var text = DataTiddler.getDataText(tiddlerName);
    if (text) {
        createTiddlyElement(place,"pre",null,null,text);
    }
};

config.macros.showData.renderDataAsTable = function(place,tiddlerName) {
    var text = "|!Name|!Value|\n";
    var data = DataTiddler.getDataObject(tiddlerName);
    if (data) {
        for (var i in data) {
            var value = data[i];
            text += "|"+i+"|"+DataTiddler.stringify(value)+"|\n";
        }
    }
    
    wikify(text, place);
};


// Internal.
//
// Creates an element that holds an error message
// 
config.macros.showData.createErrorElement = function(place, exception) {
    var message = (exception.description) ? exception.description : exception.toString();
    return createTiddlyElement(place,"span",null,"showDataError","<<showData ...>>: "+message);
};

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Stylesheet Extensions (may be overridden by local StyleSheet)
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
//
setStylesheet(
    ".showDataError{color: #ffffff;background-color: #880000;}",
    "showData");


} // of "install only once"
// Used Globals (for JSLint) ==============

// ... TiddlyWiki Core
/*global 	createTiddlyElement, saveChanges, store, story, wikify */
// ... DataTiddler
/*global 	DataTiddler */
// ... JSON
/*global 	JSON */
			

/***
!JSON Code, used to serialize the data
***/
/*
Copyright (c) 2005 JSON.org

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

The Software shall be used for Good, not Evil.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
SOFTWARE.
*/

/*
    The global object JSON contains two methods.

    JSON.stringify(value) takes a JavaScript value and produces a JSON text.
    The value must not be cyclical.

    JSON.parse(text) takes a JSON text and produces a JavaScript value. It will
    throw a 'JSONError' exception if there is an error.
*/
var JSON = {
    copyright: '(c)2005 JSON.org',
    license: 'http://www.crockford.com/JSON/license.html',
/*
    Stringify a JavaScript value, producing a JSON text.
*/
    stringify: function (v) {
        var a = [];

/*
    Emit a string.
*/
        function e(s) {
            a[a.length] = s;
        }

/*
    Convert a value.
*/
        function g(x) {
            var c, i, l, v;

            switch (typeof x) {
            case 'object':
                if (x) {
                    if (x instanceof Array) {
                        e('[');
                        l = a.length;
                        for (i = 0; i < x.length; i += 1) {
                            v = x[i];
                            if (typeof v != 'undefined' &&
                                    typeof v != 'function') {
                                if (l < a.length) {
                                    e(',');
                                }
                                g(v);
                            }
                        }
                        e(']');
                        return;
                    } else if (typeof x.toString != 'undefined') {
                        e('{');
                        l = a.length;
                        for (i in x) {
                            v = x[i];
                            if (x.hasOwnProperty(i) &&
                                    typeof v != 'undefined' &&
                                    typeof v != 'function') {
                                if (l < a.length) {
                                    e(',');
                                }
                                g(i);
                                e(':');
                                g(v);
                            }
                        }
                        return e('}');
                    }
                }
                e('null');
                return;
            case 'number':
                e(isFinite(x) ? +x : 'null');
                return;
            case 'string':
                l = x.length;
                e('"');
                for (i = 0; i < l; i += 1) {
                    c = x.charAt(i);
                    if (c >= ' ') {
                        if (c == '\\' || c == '"') {
                            e('\\');
                        }
                        e(c);
                    } else {
                        switch (c) {
                            case '\b':
                                e('\\b');
                                break;
                            case '\f':
                                e('\\f');
                                break;
                            case '\n':
                                e('\\n');
                                break;
                            case '\r':
                                e('\\r');
                                break;
                            case '\t':
                                e('\\t');
                                break;
                            default:
                                c = c.charCodeAt();
                                e('\\u00' + Math.floor(c / 16).toString(16) +
                                    (c % 16).toString(16));
                        }
                    }
                }
                e('"');
                return;
            case 'boolean':
                e(String(x));
                return;
            default:
                e('null');
                return;
            }
        }
        g(v);
        return a.join('');
    },
/*
    Parse a JSON text, producing a JavaScript value.
*/
    parse: function (text) {
        var p = /^\s*(([,:{}\[\]])|"(\\.|[^\x00-\x1f"\\])*"|-?\d+(\.\d*)?([eE][+-]?\d+)?|true|false|null)\s*/,
            token,
            operator;

        function error(m, t) {
            throw {
                name: 'JSONError',
                message: m,
                text: t || operator || token
            };
        }

        function next(b) {
            if (b && b != operator) {
                error("Expected '" + b + "'");
            }
            if (text) {
                var t = p.exec(text);
                if (t) {
                    if (t[2]) {
                        token = null;
                        operator = t[2];
                    } else {
                        operator = null;
                        try {
                            token = eval(t[1]);
                        } catch (e) {
                            error("Bad token", t[1]);
                        }
                    }
                    text = text.substring(t[0].length);
                } else {
                    error("Unrecognized token", text);
                }
            } else {
                token = operator = undefined;
            }
        }


        function val() {
            var k, o;
            switch (operator) {
            case '{':
                next('{');
                o = {};
                if (operator != '}') {
                    for (;;) {
                        if (operator || typeof token != 'string') {
                            error("Missing key");
                        }
                        k = token;
                        next();
                        next(':');
                        o[k] = val();
                        if (operator != ',') {
                            break;
                        }
                        next(',');
                    }
                }
                next('}');
                return o;
            case '[':
                next('[');
                o = [];
                if (operator != ']') {
                    for (;;) {
                        o.push(val());
                        if (operator != ',') {
                            break;
                        }
                        next(',');
                    }
                }
                next(']');
                return o;
            default:
                if (operator !== null) {
                    error("Missing value");
                }
                k = token;
                next();
                return k;
            }
        }
        next();
        return val();
    }
};

/***
!Setup the data serialization
***/

DataTiddler.format = "JSON";
DataTiddler.stringify = JSON.stringify;
DataTiddler.parse = JSON.parse;

//}}}

[[Big update!]]

/***
|''Name:''|DeprecatedFunctionsPlugin|
|''Description:''|Support for deprecated functions removed from core|
***/
//{{{
if(!version.extensions.DeprecatedFunctionsPlugin) {
version.extensions.DeprecatedFunctionsPlugin = {installed:true};

//--
//-- Deprecated code
//--

// @Deprecated: Use createElementAndWikify and this.termRegExp instead
config.formatterHelpers.charFormatHelper = function(w)
{
	w.subWikify(createTiddlyElement(w.output,this.element),this.terminator);
};

// @Deprecated: Use enclosedTextHelper and this.lookaheadRegExp instead
config.formatterHelpers.monospacedByLineHelper = function(w)
{
	var lookaheadRegExp = new RegExp(this.lookahead,"mg");
	lookaheadRegExp.lastIndex = w.matchStart;
	var lookaheadMatch = lookaheadRegExp.exec(w.source);
	if(lookaheadMatch && lookaheadMatch.index == w.matchStart) {
		var text = lookaheadMatch[1];
		if(config.browser.isIE)
			text = text.replace(/\n/g,"\r");
		createTiddlyElement(w.output,"pre",null,null,text);
		w.nextMatch = lookaheadRegExp.lastIndex;
	}
};

// @Deprecated: Use <br> or <br /> instead of <<br>>
config.macros.br = {};
config.macros.br.handler = function(place)
{
	createTiddlyElement(place,"br");
};

// Find an entry in an array. Returns the array index or null
// @Deprecated: Use indexOf instead
Array.prototype.find = function(item)
{
	var i = this.indexOf(item);
	return i == -1 ? null : i;
};

// Load a tiddler from an HTML DIV. The caller should make sure to later call Tiddler.changed()
// @Deprecated: Use store.getLoader().internalizeTiddler instead
Tiddler.prototype.loadFromDiv = function(divRef,title)
{
	return store.getLoader().internalizeTiddler(store,this,title,divRef);
};

// Format the text for storage in an HTML DIV
// @Deprecated Use store.getSaver().externalizeTiddler instead.
Tiddler.prototype.saveToDiv = function()
{
	return store.getSaver().externalizeTiddler(store,this);
};

// @Deprecated: Use store.allTiddlersAsHtml() instead
function allTiddlersAsHtml()
{
	return store.allTiddlersAsHtml();
}

// @Deprecated: Use refreshPageTemplate instead
function applyPageTemplate(title)
{
	refreshPageTemplate(title);
}

// @Deprecated: Use story.displayTiddlers instead
function displayTiddlers(srcElement,titles,template,unused1,unused2,animate,unused3)
{
	story.displayTiddlers(srcElement,titles,template,animate);
}

// @Deprecated: Use story.displayTiddler instead
function displayTiddler(srcElement,title,template,unused1,unused2,animate,unused3)
{
	story.displayTiddler(srcElement,title,template,animate);
}

// @Deprecated: Use functions on right hand side directly instead
var createTiddlerPopup = Popup.create;
var scrollToTiddlerPopup = Popup.show;
var hideTiddlerPopup = Popup.remove;

// @Deprecated: Use right hand side directly instead
var regexpBackSlashEn = new RegExp("\\\\n","mg");
var regexpBackSlash = new RegExp("\\\\","mg");
var regexpBackSlashEss = new RegExp("\\\\s","mg");
var regexpNewLine = new RegExp("\n","mg");
var regexpCarriageReturn = new RegExp("\r","mg");

}
//}}}

<<formTiddler NewBibEntryTemplate>>

Lesson 12 Readings

Differentiated Instruction
In teaching reading, one size does not fit all. Today's schools serve children from a variety of families and backgrounds, with a variety of learning strengths and needs. Trying to meet one struggling reader's needs in the context of a diverse classroom is challenging.
Differentiated instruction occurs when teachers respond to academic differences among learners in the classroom. It's a flexible and individual approach to instruction. When a teacher reaches out to an individual or small group and varies his or her teaching in order to create the best learning experience possible, that teacher is differentiating instruction. It's not easy, but it is critical for success. 
This section contains 12 articles.
Display: | Summaries | Titles only |
Differentiated Classroom Structures for Literacy Instruction
By: Diane Henry Leipzig (2000)
Differentiating instruction is more complex than just providing different students with different learning experiences. Learn about this distinction by reading classroom examples that contrast differentiated literacy instruction with simply different instruction.
Differentiated Classroom Structures for Literacy Instruction 
By: Diane Henry Leipzig (2000)
Differentiating instruction is more complex than just providing different students with different learning experiences. Learn about this distinction by reading classroom examples that contrast differentiated literacy instruction with simply different instruction. 
Differentiation isn't just about having different students do different things. Differentiated instruction is based on students' needs.
Below are some classroom structures for literacy instruction that can be differentiated. For each, examples are provided of simply different experiences for students, and differentiated experiences, flexibly adapted to meet students' changing needs.
Whole Class Structures
Different… Emma writes Morning Messages for her kindergarten class. She has the class perform a choral reading of the message each day. When she noticed that the same three kids were carrying the reading for the rest of the class, she asked them to read the message silently, so that the other students would not simply echo these three readers.
Differentiated… When Kate writes a Morning Message for her second graders, she builds in something for each of her spelling/word study groups. One day, she wrote a blank for the sh in share for one group, a blank for the silent e in the word lake for a second group, and a blank after scrub so a third group could change it into scrubbing. During Morning Message, she chooses a volunteer from each targeted group to fill in the appropriate blank.
Small Groups
Different… Phil has three reading groups in his fourth grade classroom. At the beginning of the year, he conducts an informal reading inventory with each child. He then sorts the students into three groups of equal size: high, middle, and low. For the remainder of the school year, he uses fourth grade texts with the middle group, third grade texts with the low group, and fifth grade texts with the high group.
Differentiated… In September, Jill took three running records on each of her first graders. Based upon their instructional levels, she created four reading groups. Every three weeks, she took an additional running record on each student and changed her groups to reflect students' new instructional levels. Over the year, she had from three to six groups, depending on these results.
Workshops
Different… Debra is teaching her fifth graders how to write persuasive essays. She develops three different prompts for them to choose from. Students can write an essay to convince their parents to get a pet, to persuade the principal to extend recess time, or to ask their favorite author to come to the class.
Differentiated… Rachel teaches her third grade class a writing mini-lesson about dialogue. She circulates the room as students write, and jots down the names of students who are experimenting with dialogue in their writing, noting their use of quotation marks. During independent writing time, she pulls the group of students who were not punctuating their dialogue and teaches a mini-lesson on quotation marks. Then she pulls the group of students who were using quotation marks correctly and introduces the concept of indenting for new speakers.
Centers
Different… Patty has a spelling center in her third grade classroom. When students arrive at the center, they choose one of three different sorts: sh vs. th, long /o/ vowel patterns, and -able vs. -ible words. Students select one of the three card sets from a file box and perform the sort they choose.
Differentiated… Joe has an alphabet stamp center in his kindergarten classroom. Each student brings an index card with a picture on it to the center, stamps the initial letter on the card, colors in the picture, and glues it into his/her notebook. Each day, Joe chooses a picture for each student, based upon his observations of the consonants with which the student is familiar.
Adapted from: Leipzig, D. H. (June, 2000). Differentiated or Just Different? 

How to Adapt Your Teaching Strategies to Student Needs
By: Kathleen Bulloch (2004)
Teachers are often asked to modify instruction to accommodate special needs students. The following article takes the mystery out of adapting materials and strategies for curriculum areas. 
How to Adapt Your Teaching Strategies to Student Needs 
By: Kathleen Bulloch (2004)
Teachers are often asked to modify instruction to accommodate special needs students. The following article takes the mystery out of adapting materials and strategies for curriculum areas. 
In fact, all students will benefit from the following "good teaching practices."
If the student has difficulty learning by listening, then try…
Before the lesson,
·	Pre-teach difficult vocabulary and concepts 
·	State the objective – providing a reason for listening 
·	Teach the mental activities involved in listening-mental "note taking," questioning, reviewing 
·	Provide study guides/worksheets 
·	Provide script of film 
·	Provide lecture outlines 
During the lesson,
·	Provide visuals via the board or overhead 
·	Use flash cards 
·	Have the student close his eyes and try to visualize the information 
·	Have the student take notes and use colored markers to highlight 
·	Teach the use of acronyms to help visualize lists (Roy G. Biv for the colors of the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) 
·	Give explanations in small, distinct steps 
·	Provide written as well as oral directions 
·	Have the student repeat directions 
·	When giving directions to the class, leave a pause between each step so student can carry out the process in his mind 
·	Shorten the listening time required 
·	Provide written and manipulative tasks 
·	Be concise with verbal information: "Jane, please sit." instead of "Jane, would you please sit down in your chair." 
If the student has difficulty expressing himself verbally, then try…
·	To accept an alternate form of information sharing, such as the following: 
o	Written report 
o	Artistic creation 
o	Exhibit or showcase 
o	Chart, graph, or table 
o	Photo essay 
o	Map 
o	Review of films 
o	Charade or pantomime 
o	Demonstration 
o	Taped report 
·	Ask questions requiring short answers 
·	Provide a prompt, such as beginning the sentence for the student or giving a picture cue 
·	Give the rules for class discussion (e.g., hand raising) 
·	Give points for oral contributions and preparing the student individually 
·	Teach the student to ask questions in class 
·	Specifically teach body and language expression 
·	Wait for students to respond – don't call on the first student to raise his hand 
·	First ask questions at the information level – giving facts and asking for facts back; then have the student "break in gradually" by speaking in smaller groups and then in larger groups 
If the student has difficulty reading written material, then try…
·	Find a text written at lower level 
·	Provide highlighted material 
·	Rewrite the student's text 
·	Tape the student's text 
·	Allow a peer or parent to read text aloud to student 
·	Shorten the amount of required reading 
·	Look for same content in another medium (movie, filmstrip, tape) 
·	Provide alternative methods for student to contribute to the group, such as role playing or dramatizing (oral reading should be optional) 
·	Allow extra time for reading 
·	Omit or shortening the reading required 
·	Substitute one-page summaries or study guides which identify key ideas and terms as the reading assignment 
·	Motivate the student, interesting him 
·	Provide questions before student reads a selection (include page and paragraph numbers) 
·	Put the main ideas of the text on index cards which can easily be organized in a file box and divided by chapters; pre-teaching vocabulary 
·	Type material for easier reading 
·	Use larger type 
·	Be more concrete-using pictures and manipulatives 
·	Reduce the amount of new ideas 
·	Provide experience before and after reading as a frame of reference for new concepts 
·	State the objective and relating it to previous experiences 
·	Help the student visualize what is read 
If the student has difficulty writing legibly, then try…
·	Use a format requiring little writing 
o	Multiple-choice 
o	Programmed material 
o	True/false 
o	Matching 
·	Use manipulatives such as letters from a Scrabble™ game or writing letters on small ceramic tiles 
·	Reduce or omit assignments requiring copying 
·	Encourage shared note-taking 
·	Allow the use of a tape recorder, a typewriter, or a computer 
·	Teach writing directly 
o	Trace letters or writing in clay 
o	Verbalize strokes on tape recorder 
o	Use a marker to space between words 
o	Tape the alphabet to student's desk 
o	Provide a wallet-size alphabet card 
o	Provide courses in graph analysis or calligraphy as a motivator 
·	Use graph paper to help space letters and numbers in math 
·	Use manuscript or lined ditto paper as a motivation technique (brainstorm the advantages of legibility with the class) 
If the student has difficulty expressing himself in writing, then try…
·	Accepting alternate forms of reports: 
o	Oral reports 
o	Tape-recorded report 
o	Tape of an interview 
o	Collage, cartoon, or other art 
o	Maps 
o	Diorama, 3-D materials, showcase exhibits 
o	Photographic essay 
o	Panel discussion 
o	Mock debate 
o	Review of films and presentation of an appropriate one to the class 
·	Have the student dictate work to someone else (an older student, aide, or friend) and then copy it himself 
·	Allow more time 
·	Shorten the written assignment (preparing an outline or summary) 
·	Provide a sample of what the finished paper should look like to help him organize the parts of the assignment 
·	Provide practice using: 
o	Story starters 
o	Open-ended stories 
o	Oral responses (try some oral spelling tests) 
If the student has difficulty spelling, then try…
·	Dictate the work and then asking the student to repeat it (saying it in sequence may eliminate errors of omitted syllables) 
·	Avoid traditional spelling lists (determine lists from social needs and school area needs) 
·	Use mnemonic devices ("A is the first capital letter," "The capitol building has a dome") 
·	Teach short, easy words in context: 
o	On and on 
o	Right on! 
o	On account of 
·	Have students make flashcards and highlight the difficult spots on the word 
·	Give a recognition level spelling test (asking the student to circle correct word from three or four choices) 
·	Teach words by spelling patterns (teach "cake," "bake," "take," etc. in one lesson) 
·	Use the Language Master for drill 
·	Avoid penalizing for spelling errors 
·	Hang words from the ceiling during study time or posting them on the board or wall as constant visual cues 
·	Provide a tactile/kinesthetic aid for spelling (sandpaper letters to trace or a box filled with salt or cereal to write in) 
Kathleen L. Bulloch was a speech/language pathologist for the Riverside County Office of Education in Riverside, California. Portions of this article were adapted from The Mystery of Modifying: Creative Solutions published by the Education Service Center. Education Oasis is a trademark of educationoasis.com.



How to Modify Your Teaching for Students With Low Organizational Skills
By: Kathleen Bulloch (2004)
Classrooms today have students with many special needs, and teachers are often directed to "modify as necessary." The following article takes the mystery out of modifying your teaching strategies with concrete examples that focus on students' organizational skills.
How to Modify Your Teaching for Students With Low Organizational Skills 
By: Kathleen Bulloch (2004)
Classrooms today have students with many special needs, and teachers are often directed to "modify as necessary." The following article takes the mystery out of modifying your teaching strategies with concrete examples that focus on students' organizational skills. 
If the student has difficulty becoming interested, then try…
·	To tell stories which relate the lesson to peoples' lives 
·	To establish relevancy and a purpose for learning by relating it to previous experiences 
·	To provide an experience, such as a field trip, and then teaching the lesson 
·	To reward the student often as the lesson begins 
·	To shape approximations of desired behavior by providing praise, one-to-one conversation, or immediate feedback for correct answers 
·	To read aloud a brief article or story to stimulate interest 
·	To seat the student closer to teacher (distance affects interest) 
·	To make a positive, personal comment every time the student shows any evidence of interest (i.e., sits in seat, has his/her book) 
If the student has difficulty getting started, then try…
·	To give a cue to begin work 
·	To give work in smaller amounts 
·	To provide immediate feedback 
·	To sequence work with easiest answers first 
·	To provide all necessary materials 
·	To introduce the assignment carefully so student knows the task expected 
·	To provide time suggestions for each task 
·	To check on progress often in first few minutes of work 
·	To give clear directions 
·	To give a checklist for each step of the task (e.g., the steps in a long division problem) 
·	To use a peer or peer tutor to get student started 
If the student has difficulty keeping track of materials or assignments, then try…
·	To require a notebook or using large envelopes for each subject 
·	To check his/her notebook often 
·	To keep extra supplies on hand 
·	To give an assignment sheet to the student, other teachers, and/or parents 
·	To write the assignment on board for the student to copy 
·	To check and reinforce the student for recording the assignment 
·	To require envelopes for big projects that have many separate parts 
·	To give a reward (e.g., grade, points) for bringing a book, paper, and a pencil to class every day 
·	To return corrected work promptly 
If the student has difficulty staying on task, then try…
·	To reduce distractions 
·	To increase reinforcements 
·	To provide shortened tasks 
·	To provide checklists 
·	To reduce the amount of work 
·	To provide peer tutors 
·	To provide different activities during the class period 
·	To provide a reward valued by student 
·	To isolate the student or using a time out 
·	To provide quiet alternatives for a short time 
·	To provide a timer to set short periods of work 
If the student has trouble completing tasks on time, then try…
·	To reduce the amount to be accomplished 
·	To allow more time 
·	To provide time cues 
·	To write schedules 
·	To ask for parental reinforcement 
·	To suggest a calendar at home 
·	To provide closure at points along the way 
·	To provide positive feedback to other teachers using an "assignments completed" checklist or a "wall thermometer" 
If the student has trouble working in groups, then try…
·	To provide direct instruction in group processes and providing interaction opportunities gradually 
·	To provide the student with a responsibility or position of leadership 
·	To prepare the group members to include and help the student 
·	To utilize an aide or volunteer in class 
·	To provide more structure by defining the task and listing the steps 
·	To restate the goal, linking it to the required activities, and providing closure 
If the student has trouble working independently, then try…
·	To assign a task at an appropriate level 
·	To be certain the student can see an end to the task 
·	To give precise directions 
·	To lower the difficulty level 
·	To shorten the assignment and gradually increasing the amount of work required 
·	To reinforce the student for on-task behavior 
·	To let the student see individual work as a sign of personal responsibility and growth rather than thinking the teacher just wants to "get rid of him" 
·	To provide a variety of types of work within the assignment (e.g., making charts, maps, or flags; drawing pictures; etc.) 
Kathleen L. Bulloch was a speech/language pathologist for the Riverside County Office of Education in Riverside, California. Portions of this article were adapted from The Mystery of Modifying: Creative Solutions, published by the Education Service Center. 


The Need for Flexible Alternatives to Print
By: CAST (2006)
An important change in special education law in 2004 was the inclusion of NIMAS, the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard. This new regulation requires educational publishers to provide textbooks and other print materials in a digital format, so that students who have trouble with print can access the curriculum.
The Need for Flexible Alternatives to Print 
By: CAST (2006)
An important change in special education law in 2004 was the inclusion of NIMAS, the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard. This new regulation requires educational publishers to provide textbooks and other print materials in a digital format, so that students who have trouble with print can access the curriculum. 
For many students with disabilities, the limitations of print technology raise barriers to access, and therefore to learning. Following the passage of the IDEA in 1997, it has become essential that all students have access to the general curriculum, and thus to the print materials of which it is composed.
For students who cannot see the words or images on a page, cannot hold a book or turn its pages, cannot decode the text or cannot comprehend the syntax that supports the written word may each experience different challenges, and they may each require different supports to extract meaning from information that is "book bound." For each of them, however, there is a common barrier - the centuries-old fixed format of the printed book.
Very few students with disabilities presently have access to the accessible books they need. There are several reasons for that. In some cases, the problem is technical - schools do not have the technology they need to properly provide accessible versions to students, even if they had such versions. In other cases, the problem is ignorance - many teachers and schools do not understand the issue of access or the potential solutions that are available.
But for many students the problem is a frustrating distribution system; students can't get the accessible materials they need in a timely fashion. Present policies and procedures for disseminating accessible materials are archaic and inefficient, raising barriers rather than opportunities.
The Benefits of a Standard Source File
While there are many barriers to accessibility, the problems that are caused by multiple formats are particularly frustrating. The adoption of a common, or standard, format is a simplifying step that has been crucial to progress in many other fields - from railroads (adopting a common track gauge), to video technology (adopting a common format for DVD, and HDTV). Similarly, progress in addressing the needs of students with disabilities has been enhanced the United States Department of Education's endorsement of a common National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard. With that single change, a number of barriers at many points in the educational system can now be addressed.
Reprinted with permission from the Center for Applied Special Technology, www.cast.org.
What Makes Differentiated Instruction Successful?
By: Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000)
Differentiation means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction.
What Makes Differentiated Instruction Successful? 
By: Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000)
Differentiation means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction. 
A simple answer is that students in the elementary grades vary greatly, and if teachers want to maximize their students' individual potential, they will have to attend to the differences.
There is ample evidence that students are more successful in school and find it more satisfying if they are taught in ways that are responsive to their readiness levels (e.g., Vygotsky, 1986), interests (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi, 1997) and learning profiles (e.g., Sternberg, Torff, & Grigorenko, 1998).
Another reason for differentiating instruction relates to teacher professionalism. Expert teachers are attentive to students' varied learning needs (Danielson, 1996); to differentiate instruction, then, is to become a more competent, creative, and professional educator.
There is no recipe for differentiation. Rather, it is a way of thinking about teaching and learning that values the individual and can be translated into classroom practice in many ways. Still, the following broad principles and characteristics are useful in establishing a defensible differentiated classroom:
·	Assessment is ongoing and tightly linked to instruction. 
Teachers are hunters and gatherers of information about their students and how those students are learning at a given point. Whatever the teachers can glean about student readiness, interest, and learning helps the teachers plan next steps in instruction. 
·	Teachers work hard to ensure "respectful activities" for all students. 
Each student's work should be equally interesting, equally appealing, and equally focused on essential understandings and skills. There should not be a group of students that frequently does "dull drill" and another that generally does "fluff." Rather, everyone is continually working with tasks that students and teachers perceive to be worthwhile and valuable.
·	Flexible grouping is a hallmark of the class. 
Teachers plan extended periods of instruction so that all students work with a variety of peers over a period of days. Sometimes students work with like-readiness peers, sometimes with mixed-readiness groups, sometimes with students who have similar interests, sometimes with students who have different interests, sometimes with peers who learn as they do, sometimes randomly, and often with the class as a whole. In addition, teachers can assign students to work groups, and sometimes students will select their own work groups. Flexible grouping allows students to see themselves in a variety of contexts and aids the teacher in "auditioning" students in different settings and with different kinds of work (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999).
References
References
Click the "References" link above to hide these references.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life. New York: Basic Books.
Excerpted from: Tomlinson, C. A. (August, 2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the Elementary Grades. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. 
Grouping Students Who Struggle With Reading
By: Sharon Vaughn, Marie Tejero Hughes, Sally Watson Moody, and Batya Elbaum (2001)
There are a variety of grouping formats that have been proven effective for teaching reading to students with learning disabilities: whole class, small group, pairs, and one-on-one. This article summarizes the research and implications for practice for using each of these grouping formats in the general education classroom.
Groupings That Work for Students With Disabilities
By: Jane Burnette (1999)
Peer tutoring, cross-age tutoring, and small learning groups have been shown by research to be effective for teaching reading to students with and without learning disabilities. This articles affirms that using a variety of grouping formats is preferable to whole class instruction or ability grouping. 
Tips for Inclusive Practice
By: National Institute for Urban School Improvement (2000)
Inclusive classrooms are classrooms that revolve around individualizing instruction. This list of classroom practices for including students with disabilities can also serve as a roadmap for improving the education of all children.
Using Collaborative Strategic Reading
By: Janette K. Klingner and Sharon Vaughn (1998)
Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) teaches students to use comprehension strategies while working cooperatively. Student strategies include previewing the text; giving ongoing feedback by deciding "click" (I get it) or "clunk" (I don't get it) at the end of each paragraph; "getting the gist" of the most important parts of the text; and "wrapping up" key ideas. Find out how to help students of mixed achievement levels apply comprehension strategies while reading content area text in small groups. 
What Is Differentiated Instruction?
By: Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000)
Differentiation means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction.

Teaching All Children
By: National Institute for Urban School Improvement (2000)
From tailored learning experiences to flexible school structures, there are certain characteristics of instruction that is designed to meet the needs of individual students. Learn about these characteristics in this overview of what it means to teach every child.

''Download this file'' to your computer by right-clicking [[here|emptynotestw.html]] and selecting 'save link as' or 'save target as'.

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Possible Inequity Topics:
Possible topic choices for your paper follow (note that there are some helpful articles on some of the topics in the “Where Can I Find Out More?” resources section of this lesson on Screen 3):

Segregation in public schools - 45 years after Brown vs. Board of Education, America has again taken up the debate over school segregation. What are the arguments for and against integration, the problems achieving it, and the methods by which it has been pursued? What policies promote segregation? Is integration or segregation desirable? In what form?

Educational Equity in Special Education - How do special education and school discipline practices affect students from different ethnic backgrounds? What historical, social or economic conditions account for these effects? What are the implications for students and schools? What should be done in the future? How is special education affect by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)?

Minority Languages and Education - Examine the educational implications of African-American Vernacular English (also known as Ebonics or “Black English”) and Spanish - two language forms commonly (though not universally) used by the two largest minority groups in the U.S. How are linguistic differences accommodated in schools? Should they be? What kind of knowledge of other languages and dialects should teachers be required to possess, if any? Should students whose first languages are not English be taught initially in their native languages or entirely in English? Should culturally-grounded discourse styles be incorporated into classroom practice? If so, how? If not, why not?

Gender Issues and Academic Performance - How does academic performance in subjects differ with respect to gender over the K-12 school years? What are gender-linked patterns of academic performance? What are the sources of difference in male and female performance in Math, Science, and English, or in the relative proportion of boys and girls given certain special education labels? What patterns of gender dynamics within classrooms might contribute to these differences in performance? How? (Since these patterns change over time, be sure to specify the age at which they manifest themselves.)

School Funding Disparities - At present there are wide disparities in school funding across the U.S. What are the sources of the disparities? What forms do they take? How do school funding disparities affect the educational opportunities of students from different ethnic groups? Should each school be funded equally? How can education be paid for? How should minimum levels of funding be determined?

Socio-economic Effects on Achievement - Analyses show a high correlation between students’ family income and their scores on standardized assessments (such as Virginia’s SOL tests). Consider such questions as: What factors are involved in the relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and students’ academic performances? What forms does poverty take and what are the consequences? Why are people poor? Why do children from low-income families perform more poorly on school measures (grades, test scores) than affluent children? Can curriculum standards and state or national tests improve education for students from all social class backgrounds? What are the sources of the movement for standards and tests? How are such policies justified and defended? Who promotes them? What are the criticisms directed against them? How do standards policies differ across states?

Urban Renewal and Loss of Social Capital - “Upgrading” urban neighborhoods can displace communities and bankrupt their social capital. In contemplating the pros and cons of urban renewal, think about the forms of social capital that are possessed by individuals and individuals connected to communities, groups, and classes. How do homes, businesses, institutions, organizations, schools, and social networks constitute the social capital of a community? How does this relate to the grave impact of displacement?

Individualism, Social Capital and Immigrant Families - Many scholars believe that collective communal social support has declined through individualistic expectations of self-sufficiency and transient communities. As a result, individuals, families, groups and communities have had to rely solely on the social capital of the individual family unit (Portes, 1998). Therefore it should come as no surprise that the families able to withstand the stress of individualistic expectations of self-sufficiency are those families that already have a large amount of social capital. How might this phenomenon affect migrant or immigrant families?

Colorblindness as a Racial Ideology - Our constitution is interpreted by many as a “colorblind” document. Is it truly colorblind? What are the effects of the ideology referred to as “colorblindness?” How does non-recognition of race foster subtle racism? In addition to reading the articles provided in the resources section, you may also want to use Google scholar (http://scholar.google.com/ ) to do a search on terms such as “colorblind ideology” and “colorblind ideology in education.”

Part 2: Unit Planning Grid (worth 20 points)
Use the unit planning grid template from chapter 4 (p. 114) of Data Driven [[Differentiation]], reproduced below, to develop a unit plan for a portion of your instruction. Expand the grid as necessary to address each section. In completing the grid, consider the questions posed by the authors of the book:

Why must my students learn this and what need is there for this learning across time and applications?
What does the demonstration of learning (the assessment) for this unit look like?
What deeper levels of thinking are needed to truly demonstrate the standards included in the unit?
How can I incorporate the demonstration of those levels of thinking into the assessment?
How can I translate the standards into meaningful questions for my students?
How can I "chunk" the content in the unit to aid student learning?

Unit Plan For:
Subject:
Grade(s):

Standards/Benchmarks: What should students know and be able to do?

Key Concepts: What must students remember and be able to use, even after this unit?

Skills: How will students demonstrate they can utilize what they learned in a meaningful way?
Relevance: Why must students learn this and what need is there for this learning across time and applications?
Final Assessment Description: What does the demonstration of learning for this unit look like
Critical Unit Questions: What questions will the students be able to answer, if they are successful on the final assessment?
Pre-Assessment Design: What do I already know about my students? What do I need to know to get them from where they are to the final assessment?
Chunking or Outlining the Unit: How will I break up the unit into chunks of learning that represent various degrees of growing skill and thinking?
Next Steps to Finish Unit Planning:
-4 Create the final assessment prompts and rubrics. Collect or create models and/or examples.
-5 Create student self-assessment tools or checklists.
-6 Develop a “planning grid” for each unit chunk after pre-assessment.

/***
|''Name''|EvalMacro|
|''Version''|0.95|
|''Status''|stable|
|''Author''|FND|
|''Source''|[[FND's DevPad|http://devpad.tiddlyspot.com/#EvalMacro]]|
|''License''|[[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/]]|
|''~CoreVersion''|2.1|
|''Type''|macro|
|''Requires''|N/A|
|''Overrides''|N/A|
|''Description''|Allows executing JavaScript code to return computed values.|
!Usage
{{{
<<eval [code] [mode]>>
}}}
* {{{<<eval {{code}}>>}}}
** if no mode is specified, the first parameter's contents will be wikified
** through the use evaluated parameters, calculations can be performed within this parameter
* {{{<<eval [[code]] "scriptMode">>}}}
** if "scriptMode" is specified, the contents of the first parameter will be evaluated in place, proving access to local variables like the tiddler object
** no output is generated in this mode by default, though the {{{wikify()}}} function can be used for that
!!Examples
<<eval {{
	var dateFormat = "YYYY-0MM-0DD 0hh:0mm";
	var now = new Date;
	"time: " + now.formatString(dateFormat);
}}>>
<<eval
	[[
	var dateFormat = "YYYY-0MM-0DD";
	var title = tiddler.title;
	var author = tiddler.modifier;
	var date = tiddler.modified.formatString(dateFormat);
	wikify(title + ": " + author + ", " + date, place);
	]]
	"scriptMode"
>>
!Revision History
!!v0.9 (2007-10-14)
* initial release
!!v0.95 (2007-12-23)
* introduced script mode
!Code
***/
//{{{
config.macros.eval = {};
config.macros.eval.handler = function(place, macroName, params, wikifier, paramString, tiddler) {
	if(params[1] == "scriptMode")
		eval(params[0]);
	else
		wikify(params[0], place);
}
//}}}

I basically created the My Notes ~TiddlyWiki to organize my own notes, then made it available for others to organize their own notes. Here are the advantages of My Notes over a basic ~TiddlyWiki:
*You can sort and index notes by major topics but also by specific subtopics within each topic. See [[here|TiddlyWiki]] for an example of an index.
*You can also sort the same notes by the types of note they are: definitions, summaries, questions, images, quotes, statistics, etc.
*You can now do both of the above with handy dropdown menus.
*You can create new topics and note-types with one click, and by doing so you automatically create an index for that topic and add it to the main menu.
*You can format your text quickly, adding highlighting, bold, italic, etc, without manually adding a lot of ~TiddlyWiki code. See [[Easy formatting]].
*You can collapse the menus if they get too long.
*You can add bibliographic entries if I wish, similar to [[BibblyWiki|http://www.giffmex.org/bibblywiki.html]]. 
*''New with version 2.02:''
**'Notes by type' indexes are now sorted by topic!
**The tabbed folders in the right hand menu are now cleared out of background tiddlers and reserved only for your content.

/***
|''Name:''|ForEachTiddlerPlugin|
|''Version:''|1.0.8 (2007-04-12)|
|''Source:''|http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#ForEachTiddlerPlugin|
|''Author:''|UdoBorkowski (ub [at] abego-software [dot] de)|
|''Licence:''|[[BSD open source license (abego Software)|http://www.abego-software.de/legal/apl-v10.html]]|
|''Copyright:''|&copy; 2005-2007 [[abego Software|http://www.abego-software.de]]|
|''TiddlyWiki:''|1.2.38+, 2.0|
|''Browser:''|Firefox 1.0.4+; Firefox 1.5; InternetExplorer 6.0|
!Description

Create customizable lists, tables etc. for your selections of tiddlers. Specify the tiddlers to include and their order through a powerful language.

''Syntax:'' 
|>|{{{<<}}}''forEachTiddler'' [''in'' //tiddlyWikiPath//] [''where'' //whereCondition//] [''sortBy'' //sortExpression// [''ascending'' //or// ''descending'']] [''script'' //scriptText//] [//action// [//actionParameters//]]{{{>>}}}|
|//tiddlyWikiPath//|The filepath to the TiddlyWiki the macro should work on. When missing the current TiddlyWiki is used.|
|//whereCondition//|(quoted) JavaScript boolean expression. May refer to the build-in variables {{{tiddler}}} and  {{{context}}}.|
|//sortExpression//|(quoted) JavaScript expression returning "comparable" objects (using '{{{<}}}','{{{>}}}','{{{==}}}'. May refer to the build-in variables {{{tiddler}}} and  {{{context}}}.|
|//scriptText//|(quoted) JavaScript text. Typically defines JavaScript functions that are called by the various JavaScript expressions (whereClause, sortClause, action arguments,...)|
|//action//|The action that should be performed on every selected tiddler, in the given order. By default the actions [[addToList|AddToListAction]] and [[write|WriteAction]] are supported. When no action is specified [[addToList|AddToListAction]]  is used.|
|//actionParameters//|(action specific) parameters the action may refer while processing the tiddlers (see action descriptions for details). <<tiddler [[JavaScript in actionParameters]]>>|
|>|~~Syntax formatting: Keywords in ''bold'', optional parts in [...]. 'or' means that exactly one of the two alternatives must exist.~~|

See details see [[ForEachTiddlerMacro]] and [[ForEachTiddlerExamples]].

!Revision history
* v1.0.8 (2007-04-12)
** Adapted to latest TiddlyWiki 2.2 Beta importTiddlyWiki API (introduced with changeset 2004). TiddlyWiki 2.2 Beta builds prior to changeset 2004 are no longer supported (but TiddlyWiki 2.1 and earlier, of cause)
* v1.0.7 (2007-03-28)
** Also support "pre" formatted TiddlyWikis (introduced with TW 2.2) (when using "in" clause to work on external tiddlers)
* v1.0.6 (2006-09-16)
** Context provides "viewerTiddler", i.e. the tiddler used to view the macro. Most times this is equal to the "inTiddler", but when using the "tiddler" macro both may be different.
** Support "begin", "end" and "none" expressions in "write" action
* v1.0.5 (2006-02-05)
** Pass tiddler containing the macro with wikify, context object also holds reference to tiddler containing the macro ("inTiddler"). Thanks to SimonBaird.
** Support Firefox 1.5.0.1
** Internal
*** Make "JSLint" conform
*** "Only install once"
* v1.0.4 (2006-01-06)
** Support TiddlyWiki 2.0
* v1.0.3 (2005-12-22)
** Features: 
*** Write output to a file supports multi-byte environments (Thanks to Bram Chen) 
*** Provide API to access the forEachTiddler functionality directly through JavaScript (see getTiddlers and performMacro)
** Enhancements:
*** Improved error messages on InternetExplorer.
* v1.0.2 (2005-12-10)
** Features: 
*** context object also holds reference to store (TiddlyWiki)
** Fixed Bugs: 
*** ForEachTiddler 1.0.1 has broken support on win32 Opera 8.51 (Thanks to BrunoSabin for reporting)
* v1.0.1 (2005-12-08)
** Features: 
*** Access tiddlers stored in separated TiddlyWikis through the "in" option. I.e. you are no longer limited to only work on the "current TiddlyWiki".
*** Write output to an external file using the "toFile" option of the "write" action. With this option you may write your customized tiddler exports.
*** Use the "script" section to define "helper" JavaScript functions etc. to be used in the various JavaScript expressions (whereClause, sortClause, action arguments,...).
*** Access and store context information for the current forEachTiddler invocation (through the build-in "context" object) .
*** Improved script evaluation (for where/sort clause and write scripts).
* v1.0.0 (2005-11-20)
** initial version

!Code
***/
//{{{

	
//============================================================================
//============================================================================
//		   ForEachTiddlerPlugin
//============================================================================
//============================================================================

// Only install once
if (!version.extensions.ForEachTiddlerPlugin) {

if (!window.abego) window.abego = {};

version.extensions.ForEachTiddlerPlugin = {
	major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 8, 
	date: new Date(2007,3,12), 
	source: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#ForEachTiddlerPlugin",
	licence: "[[BSD open source license (abego Software)|http://www.abego-software.de/legal/apl-v10.html]]",
	copyright: "Copyright (c) abego Software GmbH, 2005-2007 (www.abego-software.de)"
};

// For backward compatibility with TW 1.2.x
//
if (!TiddlyWiki.prototype.forEachTiddler) {
	TiddlyWiki.prototype.forEachTiddler = function(callback) {
		for(var t in this.tiddlers) {
			callback.call(this,t,this.tiddlers[t]);
		}
	};
}

//============================================================================
// forEachTiddler Macro
//============================================================================

version.extensions.forEachTiddler = {
	major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 8, date: new Date(2007,3,12), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Configurations and constants 
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

config.macros.forEachTiddler = {
	 // Standard Properties
	 label: "forEachTiddler",
	 prompt: "Perform actions on a (sorted) selection of tiddlers",

	 // actions
	 actions: {
		 addToList: {},
		 write: {}
	 }
};

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
//  The forEachTiddler Macro Handler 
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

config.macros.forEachTiddler.getContainingTiddler = function(e) {
	while(e && !hasClass(e,"tiddler"))
		e = e.parentNode;
	var title = e ? e.getAttribute("tiddler") : null; 
	return title ? store.getTiddler(title) : null;
};

config.macros.forEachTiddler.handler = function(place,macroName,params,wikifier,paramString,tiddler) {
	// config.macros.forEachTiddler.traceMacroCall(place,macroName,params,wikifier,paramString,tiddler);

	if (!tiddler) tiddler = config.macros.forEachTiddler.getContainingTiddler(place);
	// --- Parsing ------------------------------------------

	var i = 0; // index running over the params
	// Parse the "in" clause
	var tiddlyWikiPath = undefined;
	if ((i < params.length) && params[i] == "in") {
		i++;
		if (i >= params.length) {
			this.handleError(place, "TiddlyWiki path expected behind 'in'.");
			return;
		}
		tiddlyWikiPath = this.paramEncode((i < params.length) ? params[i] : "");
		i++;
	}

	// Parse the where clause
	var whereClause ="true";
	if ((i < params.length) && params[i] == "where") {
		i++;
		whereClause = this.paramEncode((i < params.length) ? params[i] : "");
		i++;
	}

	// Parse the sort stuff
	var sortClause = null;
	var sortAscending = true; 
	if ((i < params.length) && params[i] == "sortBy") {
		i++;
		if (i >= params.length) {
			this.handleError(place, "sortClause missing behind 'sortBy'.");
			return;
		}
		sortClause = this.paramEncode(params[i]);
		i++;

		if ((i < params.length) && (params[i] == "ascending" || params[i] == "descending")) {
			 sortAscending = params[i] == "ascending";
			 i++;
		}
	}

	// Parse the script
	var scriptText = null;
	if ((i < params.length) && params[i] == "script") {
		i++;
		scriptText = this.paramEncode((i < params.length) ? params[i] : "");
		i++;
	}

	// Parse the action. 
	// When we are already at the end use the default action
	var actionName = "addToList";
	if (i < params.length) {
	   if (!config.macros.forEachTiddler.actions[params[i]]) {
			this.handleError(place, "Unknown action '"+params[i]+"'.");
			return;
		} else {
			actionName = params[i]; 
			i++;
		}
	} 
	
	// Get the action parameter
	// (the parsing is done inside the individual action implementation.)
	var actionParameter = params.slice(i);


	// --- Processing ------------------------------------------
	try {
		this.performMacro({
				place: place, 
				inTiddler: tiddler,
				whereClause: whereClause, 
				sortClause: sortClause, 
				sortAscending: sortAscending, 
				actionName: actionName, 
				actionParameter: actionParameter, 
				scriptText: scriptText, 
				tiddlyWikiPath: tiddlyWikiPath});

	} catch (e) {
		this.handleError(place, e);
	}
};

// Returns an object with properties "tiddlers" and "context".
// tiddlers holds the (sorted) tiddlers selected by the parameter,
// context the context of the execution of the macro.
//
// The action is not yet performed.
//
// @parameter see performMacro
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.getTiddlersAndContext = function(parameter) {

	var context = config.macros.forEachTiddler.createContext(parameter.place, parameter.whereClause, parameter.sortClause, parameter.sortAscending, parameter.actionName, parameter.actionParameter, parameter.scriptText, parameter.tiddlyWikiPath, parameter.inTiddler);

	var tiddlyWiki = parameter.tiddlyWikiPath ? this.loadTiddlyWiki(parameter.tiddlyWikiPath) : store;
	context["tiddlyWiki"] = tiddlyWiki;
	
	// Get the tiddlers, as defined by the whereClause
	var tiddlers = this.findTiddlers(parameter.whereClause, context, tiddlyWiki);
	context["tiddlers"] = tiddlers;

	// Sort the tiddlers, when sorting is required.
	if (parameter.sortClause) {
		this.sortTiddlers(tiddlers, parameter.sortClause, parameter.sortAscending, context);
	}

	return {tiddlers: tiddlers, context: context};
};

// Returns the (sorted) tiddlers selected by the parameter.
//
// The action is not yet performed.
//
// @parameter see performMacro
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.getTiddlers = function(parameter) {
	return this.getTiddlersAndContext(parameter).tiddlers;
};

// Performs the macros with the given parameter.
//
// @param parameter holds the parameter of the macro as separate properties.
//				  The following properties are supported:
//
//						place
//						whereClause
//						sortClause
//						sortAscending
//						actionName
//						actionParameter
//						scriptText
//						tiddlyWikiPath
//
//					All properties are optional. 
//					For most actions the place property must be defined.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.performMacro = function(parameter) {
	var tiddlersAndContext = this.getTiddlersAndContext(parameter);

	// Perform the action
	var actionName = parameter.actionName ? parameter.actionName : "addToList";
	var action = config.macros.forEachTiddler.actions[actionName];
	if (!action) {
		this.handleError(parameter.place, "Unknown action '"+actionName+"'.");
		return;
	}

	var actionHandler = action.handler;
	actionHandler(parameter.place, tiddlersAndContext.tiddlers, parameter.actionParameter, tiddlersAndContext.context);
};

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
//  The actions 
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

// Internal.
//
// --- The addToList Action -----------------------------------------------
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.actions.addToList.handler = function(place, tiddlers, parameter, context) {
	// Parse the parameter
	var p = 0;

	// Check for extra parameters
	if (parameter.length > p) {
		config.macros.forEachTiddler.createExtraParameterErrorElement(place, "addToList", parameter, p);
		return;
	}

	// Perform the action.
	var list = document.createElement("ul");
	place.appendChild(list);
	for (var i = 0; i < tiddlers.length; i++) {
		var tiddler = tiddlers[i];
		var listItem = document.createElement("li");
		list.appendChild(listItem);
		createTiddlyLink(listItem, tiddler.title, true);
	}
};

abego.parseNamedParameter = function(name, parameter, i) {
	var beginExpression = null;
	if ((i < parameter.length) && parameter[i] == name) {
		i++;
		if (i >= parameter.length) {
			throw "Missing text behind '%0'".format([name]);
		}
		
		return config.macros.forEachTiddler.paramEncode(parameter[i]);
	}
	return null;
}

// Internal.
//
// --- The write Action ---------------------------------------------------
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.actions.write.handler = function(place, tiddlers, parameter, context) {
	// Parse the parameter
	var p = 0;
	if (p >= parameter.length) {
		this.handleError(place, "Missing expression behind 'write'.");
		return;
	}

	var textExpression = config.macros.forEachTiddler.paramEncode(parameter[p]);
	p++;

	// Parse the "begin" option
	var beginExpression = abego.parseNamedParameter("begin", parameter, p);
	if (beginExpression !== null) 
		p += 2;
	var endExpression = abego.parseNamedParameter("end", parameter, p);
	if (endExpression !== null) 
		p += 2;
	var noneExpression = abego.parseNamedParameter("none", parameter, p);
	if (noneExpression !== null) 
		p += 2;

	// Parse the "toFile" option
	var filename = null;
	var lineSeparator = undefined;
	if ((p < parameter.length) && parameter[p] == "toFile") {
		p++;
		if (p >= parameter.length) {
			this.handleError(place, "Filename expected behind 'toFile' of 'write' action.");
			return;
		}
		
		filename = config.macros.forEachTiddler.getLocalPath(config.macros.forEachTiddler.paramEncode(parameter[p]));
		p++;
		if ((p < parameter.length) && parameter[p] == "withLineSeparator") {
			p++;
			if (p >= parameter.length) {
				this.handleError(place, "Line separator text expected behind 'withLineSeparator' of 'write' action.");
				return;
			}
			lineSeparator = config.macros.forEachTiddler.paramEncode(parameter[p]);
			p++;
		}
	}
	
	// Check for extra parameters
	if (parameter.length > p) {
		config.macros.forEachTiddler.createExtraParameterErrorElement(place, "write", parameter, p);
		return;
	}

	// Perform the action.
	var func = config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction(textExpression, context);
	var count = tiddlers.length;
	var text = "";
	if (count > 0 && beginExpression)
		text += config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction(beginExpression, context)(undefined, context, count, undefined);
	
	for (var i = 0; i < count; i++) {
		var tiddler = tiddlers[i];
		text += func(tiddler, context, count, i);
	}
	
	if (count > 0 && endExpression)
		text += config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction(endExpression, context)(undefined, context, count, undefined);

	if (count == 0 && noneExpression) 
		text += config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction(noneExpression, context)(undefined, context, count, undefined);
		

	if (filename) {
		if (lineSeparator !== undefined) {
			lineSeparator = lineSeparator.replace(/\\n/mg, "\n").replace(/\\r/mg, "\r");
			text = text.replace(/\n/mg,lineSeparator);
		}
		saveFile(filename, convertUnicodeToUTF8(text));
	} else {
		var wrapper = createTiddlyElement(place, "span");
		wikify(text, wrapper, null/* highlightRegExp */, context.inTiddler);
	}
};


// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
//  Helpers
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.createContext = function(placeParam, whereClauseParam, sortClauseParam, sortAscendingParam, actionNameParam, actionParameterParam, scriptText, tiddlyWikiPathParam, inTiddlerParam) {
	return {
		place : placeParam, 
		whereClause : whereClauseParam, 
		sortClause : sortClauseParam, 
		sortAscending : sortAscendingParam, 
		script : scriptText,
		actionName : actionNameParam, 
		actionParameter : actionParameterParam,
		tiddlyWikiPath : tiddlyWikiPathParam,
		inTiddler : inTiddlerParam, // the tiddler containing the <<forEachTiddler ...>> macro call.
		viewerTiddler : config.macros.forEachTiddler.getContainingTiddler(placeParam) // the tiddler showing the forEachTiddler result
	};
};

// Internal.
//
// Returns a TiddlyWiki with the tiddlers loaded from the TiddlyWiki of 
// the given path.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.loadTiddlyWiki = function(path, idPrefix) {
	if (!idPrefix) {
		idPrefix = "store";
	}
	var lenPrefix = idPrefix.length;
	
	// Read the content of the given file
	var content = loadFile(this.getLocalPath(path));
	if(content === null) {
		throw "TiddlyWiki '"+path+"' not found.";
	}
	
	var tiddlyWiki = new TiddlyWiki();

	// Starting with TW 2.2 there is a helper function to import the tiddlers
	if (tiddlyWiki.importTiddlyWiki) {
		if (!tiddlyWiki.importTiddlyWiki(content))
			throw "File '"+path+"' is not a TiddlyWiki.";
		tiddlyWiki.dirty = false;
		return tiddlyWiki;
	}
	
	// The legacy code, for TW < 2.2
	
	// Locate the storeArea div's
	var posOpeningDiv = content.indexOf(startSaveArea);
	var posClosingDiv = content.lastIndexOf(endSaveArea);
	if((posOpeningDiv == -1) || (posClosingDiv == -1)) {
		throw "File '"+path+"' is not a TiddlyWiki.";
	}
	var storageText = content.substr(posOpeningDiv + startSaveArea.length, posClosingDiv);
	
	// Create a "div" element that contains the storage text
	var myStorageDiv = document.createElement("div");
	myStorageDiv.innerHTML = storageText;
	myStorageDiv.normalize();
	
	// Create all tiddlers in a new TiddlyWiki
	// (following code is modified copy of TiddlyWiki.prototype.loadFromDiv)
	var store = myStorageDiv.childNodes;
	for(var t = 0; t < store.length; t++) {
		var e = store[t];
		var title = null;
		if(e.getAttribute)
			title = e.getAttribute("tiddler");
		if(!title && e.id && e.id.substr(0,lenPrefix) == idPrefix)
			title = e.id.substr(lenPrefix);
		if(title && title !== "") {
			var tiddler = tiddlyWiki.createTiddler(title);
			tiddler.loadFromDiv(e,title);
		}
	}
	tiddlyWiki.dirty = false;

	return tiddlyWiki;
};


	
// Internal.
//
// Returns a function that has a function body returning the given javaScriptExpression.
// The function has the parameters:
// 
//	 (tiddler, context, count, index)
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction = function (javaScriptExpression, context) {
	var script = context["script"];
	var functionText = "var theFunction = function(tiddler, context, count, index) { return "+javaScriptExpression+"}";
	var fullText = (script ? script+";" : "")+functionText+";theFunction;";
	return eval(fullText);
};

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.findTiddlers = function(whereClause, context, tiddlyWiki) {
	var result = [];
	var func = config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction(whereClause, context);
	tiddlyWiki.forEachTiddler(function(title,tiddler) {
		if (func(tiddler, context, undefined, undefined)) {
			result.push(tiddler);
		}
	});
	return result;
};

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.createExtraParameterErrorElement = function(place, actionName, parameter, firstUnusedIndex) {
	var message = "Extra parameter behind '"+actionName+"':";
	for (var i = firstUnusedIndex; i < parameter.length; i++) {
		message += " "+parameter[i];
	}
	this.handleError(place, message);
};

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.sortAscending = function(tiddlerA, tiddlerB) {
	var result = 
		(tiddlerA.forEachTiddlerSortValue == tiddlerB.forEachTiddlerSortValue) 
			? 0
			: (tiddlerA.forEachTiddlerSortValue < tiddlerB.forEachTiddlerSortValue)
			   ? -1 
			   : +1; 
	return result;
};

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.sortDescending = function(tiddlerA, tiddlerB) {
	var result = 
		(tiddlerA.forEachTiddlerSortValue == tiddlerB.forEachTiddlerSortValue) 
			? 0
			: (tiddlerA.forEachTiddlerSortValue < tiddlerB.forEachTiddlerSortValue)
			   ? +1 
			   : -1; 
	return result;
};

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.sortTiddlers = function(tiddlers, sortClause, ascending, context) {
	// To avoid evaluating the sortClause whenever two items are compared 
	// we pre-calculate the sortValue for every item in the array and store it in a 
	// temporary property ("forEachTiddlerSortValue") of the tiddlers.
	var func = config.macros.forEachTiddler.getEvalTiddlerFunction(sortClause, context);
	var count = tiddlers.length;
	var i;
	for (i = 0; i < count; i++) {
		var tiddler = tiddlers[i];
		tiddler.forEachTiddlerSortValue = func(tiddler,context, undefined, undefined);
	}

	// Do the sorting
	tiddlers.sort(ascending ? this.sortAscending : this.sortDescending);

	// Delete the temporary property that holds the sortValue.	
	for (i = 0; i < tiddlers.length; i++) {
		delete tiddlers[i].forEachTiddlerSortValue;
	}
};


// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.trace = function(message) {
	displayMessage(message);
};

// Internal.
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.traceMacroCall = function(place,macroName,params) {
	var message ="<<"+macroName;
	for (var i = 0; i < params.length; i++) {
		message += " "+params[i];
	}
	message += ">>";
	displayMessage(message);
};


// Internal.
//
// Creates an element that holds an error message
// 
config.macros.forEachTiddler.createErrorElement = function(place, exception) {
	var message = (exception.description) ? exception.description : exception.toString();
	return createTiddlyElement(place,"span",null,"forEachTiddlerError","<<forEachTiddler ...>>: "+message);
};

// Internal.
//
// @param place [may be null]
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.handleError = function(place, exception) {
	if (place) {
		this.createErrorElement(place, exception);
	} else {
		throw exception;
	}
};

// Internal.
//
// Encodes the given string.
//
// Replaces 
//	 "$))" to ">>"
//	 "$)" to ">"
//
config.macros.forEachTiddler.paramEncode = function(s) {
	var reGTGT = new RegExp("\\$\\)\\)","mg");
	var reGT = new RegExp("\\$\\)","mg");
	return s.replace(reGTGT, ">>").replace(reGT, ">");
};

// Internal.
//
// Returns the given original path (that is a file path, starting with "file:")
// as a path to a local file, in the systems native file format.
//
// Location information in the originalPath (i.e. the "#" and stuff following)
// is stripped.
// 
config.macros.forEachTiddler.getLocalPath = function(originalPath) {
	// Remove any location part of the URL
	var hashPos = originalPath.indexOf("#");
	if(hashPos != -1)
		originalPath = originalPath.substr(0,hashPos);
	// Convert to a native file format assuming
	// "file:///x:/path/path/path..." - pc local file --> "x:\path\path\path..."
	// "file://///server/share/path/path/path..." - FireFox pc network file --> "\\server\share\path\path\path..."
	// "file:///path/path/path..." - mac/unix local file --> "/path/path/path..."
	// "file://server/share/path/path/path..." - pc network file --> "\\server\share\path\path\path..."
	var localPath;
	if(originalPath.charAt(9) == ":") // pc local file
		localPath = unescape(originalPath.substr(8)).replace(new RegExp("/","g"),"\\");
	else if(originalPath.indexOf("file://///") === 0) // FireFox pc network file
		localPath = "\\\\" + unescape(originalPath.substr(10)).replace(new RegExp("/","g"),"\\");
	else if(originalPath.indexOf("file:///") === 0) // mac/unix local file
		localPath = unescape(originalPath.substr(7));
	else if(originalPath.indexOf("file:/") === 0) // mac/unix local file
		localPath = unescape(originalPath.substr(5));
	else // pc network file
		localPath = "\\\\" + unescape(originalPath.substr(7)).replace(new RegExp("/","g"),"\\");	
	return localPath;
};

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Stylesheet Extensions (may be overridden by local StyleSheet)
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
//
setStylesheet(
	".forEachTiddlerError{color: #ffffff;background-color: #880000;}",
	"forEachTiddler");

//============================================================================
// End of forEachTiddler Macro
//============================================================================


//============================================================================
// String.startsWith Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns true if the string starts with the given prefix, false otherwise.
//
version.extensions["String.startsWith"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
String.prototype.startsWith = function(prefix) {
	var n =  prefix.length;
	return (this.length >= n) && (this.slice(0, n) == prefix);
};



//============================================================================
// String.endsWith Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns true if the string ends with the given suffix, false otherwise.
//
version.extensions["String.endsWith"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
String.prototype.endsWith = function(suffix) {
	var n = suffix.length;
	return (this.length >= n) && (this.right(n) == suffix);
};


//============================================================================
// String.contains Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns true when the string contains the given substring, false otherwise.
//
version.extensions["String.contains"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
String.prototype.contains = function(substring) {
	return this.indexOf(substring) >= 0;
};

//============================================================================
// Array.indexOf Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns the index of the first occurance of the given item in the array or 
// -1 when no such item exists.
//
// @param item [may be null]
//
version.extensions["Array.indexOf"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
Array.prototype.indexOf = function(item) {
	for (var i = 0; i < this.length; i++) {
		if (this[i] == item) {
			return i;
		}
	}
	return -1;
};

//============================================================================
// Array.contains Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns true when the array contains the given item, otherwise false. 
//
// @param item [may be null]
//
version.extensions["Array.contains"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
Array.prototype.contains = function(item) {
	return (this.indexOf(item) >= 0);
};

//============================================================================
// Array.containsAny Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns true when the array contains at least one of the elements 
// of the item. Otherwise (or when items contains no elements) false is returned.
//
version.extensions["Array.containsAny"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
Array.prototype.containsAny = function(items) {
	for(var i = 0; i < items.length; i++) {
		if (this.contains(items[i])) {
			return true;
		}
	}
	return false;
};


//============================================================================
// Array.containsAll Function
//============================================================================
//
// Returns true when the array contains all the items, otherwise false.
// 
// When items is null false is returned (even if the array contains a null).
//
// @param items [may be null] 
//
version.extensions["Array.containsAll"] = {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005,11,20), provider: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de"};
//
Array.prototype.containsAll = function(items) {
	for(var i = 0; i < items.length; i++) {
		if (!this.contains(items[i])) {
			return false;
		}
	}
	return true;
};


} // of "install only once"

// Used Globals (for JSLint) ==============
// ... DOM
/*global 	document */
// ... TiddlyWiki Core
/*global 	convertUnicodeToUTF8, createTiddlyElement, createTiddlyLink, 
			displayMessage, endSaveArea, hasClass, loadFile, saveFile, 
			startSaveArea, store, wikify */
//}}}


/***
!Licence and Copyright
Copyright (c) abego Software ~GmbH, 2005 ([[www.abego-software.de|http://www.abego-software.de]])

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification,
are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:

Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this
list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other
materials provided with the distribution.

Neither the name of abego Software nor the names of its contributors may be
used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific
prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT
SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR
BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN
CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN
ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
***/

The {{{<<formTiddler ...>>}}} macro defined by the FormTiddlerPlugin. 

When a tiddler T1 references the (FormTemplate) tiddler T2 in the FormTiddlerMacro, the data of T1 can be edited through the INPUT elements defined by T2.

/***
<<checkForDataTiddlerPlugin>>
|''Name:''|FormTiddlerPlugin|
|''Version:''|1.0.6 (2007-06-24)|
|''Source:''|http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#FormTiddlerPlugin|
|''Author:''|UdoBorkowski (ub [at] abego-software [dot] de)|
|''Licence:''|[[BSD open source license]]|
|''Macros:''|formTiddler, checkForDataTiddlerPlugin, newTiddlerWithForm|
|''Requires:''|DataTiddlerPlugin|
|''TiddlyWiki:''|1.2.38+, 2.0|
|''Browser:''|Firefox 1.0.4+; InternetExplorer 6.0|
!Description
Use form-based tiddlers to enter your tiddler data using text fields, listboxes, checkboxes etc. (All standard HTML Form input elements supported).

''Syntax:'' 
|>|{{{<<}}}''formTiddler'' //tiddlerName//{{{>>}}}|
|//tiddlerName//|The name of the FormTemplate tiddler to be used to edit the data of the tiddler containing the macro.|

|>|{{{<<}}}''newTiddlerWithForm'' //formTemplateName// //buttonLabel// [//titleExpression// [''askUser'']] {{{>>}}}|
|//formTemplateName//|The name of the tiddler that defines the form the new tiddler should use.|
|//buttonLabel//|The label of the button|
|//titleExpression//|A (quoted) JavaScript String expression that defines the title (/name) of the new tiddler.|
|''askUser''|Typically the user is not asked for the title when a title is specified (and not yet used). When ''askUser'' is given the user will be asked in any case. This may be used when the calculated title is just a suggestion that must be confirmed by the user|
|>|~~Syntax formatting: Keywords in ''bold'', optional parts in [...]. 'or' means that exactly one of the two alternatives must exist.~~|

For details and how to use the macros see the [[introduction|FormTiddler Introduction]] and the [[examples|FormTiddler Examples]].

!Revision history
* v1.0.6 (2007-06-24)
** Fixed problem when using SELECT component in Internet Explorer (thanks to MaikBoenig for reporting)
* v1.0.5 (2006-02-24)
** Removed "debugger;" instruction
* v1.0.4 (2006-02-07)
** Bug: On IE no data is written to data section when field values changed (thanks to KenGirard for reporting)
* v1.0.3 (2006-02-05)
** Bug: {{{"No form template specified in <<formTiddler>>"}}} when using formTiddler macro on InternetExplorer (thanks to KenGirard for reporting)
* v1.0.2 (2006-01-06)
** Support TiddlyWiki 2.0
* v1.0.1 (2005-12-22)
** Features: 
*** Support InternetExplorer
*** Added newTiddlerWithForm Macro
* v1.0.0 (2005-12-14)
** initial version

!Code
***/
//{{{

//============================================================================
//============================================================================
//						FormTiddlerPlugin
//============================================================================
//============================================================================

if (!window.abego) window.abego = {};

abego.getOptionsValue = function(element,i) {
	var v = element.options[i].value;
	if (!v && element.options[i].text)
		v = element.options[i].text;
	return v;
};

version.extensions.FormTiddlerPlugin = {
	major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 5,
	date: new Date(2006, 2, 24), 
	type: 'plugin',
	source: "http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#FormTiddlerPlugin"
};

// For backward compatibility with v1.2.x
//
if (!window.story) window.story=window; 
if (!TiddlyWiki.prototype.getTiddler) TiddlyWiki.prototype.getTiddler = function(title) { return t = this.tiddlers[title]; return (t != undefined && t instanceof Tiddler) ? t : null; } 

//============================================================================
// formTiddler Macro
//============================================================================

// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Configurations and constants 
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

config.macros.formTiddler = {
	// Standard Properties
	label: "formTiddler",
	version: {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 4, date: new Date(2006, 2, 7)},
	prompt: "Edit tiddler data using forms",

	// Define the "setters" that set the values of INPUT elements of a given type
	// (must match the corresponding "getter")
	setter: {  
		button:				function(e, value) {/*contains no data */ },
		checkbox:			function(e, value) {e.checked = value;},
		file:				function(e, value) {try {e.value = value;} catch(e) {/* ignore, possibly security error*/}},
		hidden:				function(e, value) {e.value = value;},
		password:			function(e, value) {e.value = value;},
		radio:				function(e, value) {e.checked = (e.value == value);},
		reset:				function(e, value) {/*contains no data */ },
		"select-one":		function(e, value) {config.macros.formTiddler.setSelectOneValue(e,value);},
		"select-multiple":	function(e, value) {config.macros.formTiddler.setSelectMultipleValue(e,value);},
		submit:				function(e, value) {/*contains no data */},
		text:				function(e, value) {e.value = value;},
		textarea:			function(e, value) {e.value = value;}
	},

	// Define the "getters" that return the value of INPUT elements of a given type
	// Return undefined to not store any data.
	getter: {  
		button:				function(e, value) {return undefined;},
		checkbox:			function(e, value) {return e.checked;},
		file:				function(e, value) {return e.value;},
		hidden:				function(e, value) {return e.value;},
		password:			function(e, value) {return e.value;},
		radio:				function(e, value) {return e.checked ? e.value : undefined;},
		reset:				function(e, value) {return undefined;},
		"select-one":		function(e, value) {return config.macros.formTiddler.getSelectOneValue(e);},
		"select-multiple":	function(e, value) {return config.macros.formTiddler.getSelectMultipleValue(e);},
		submit:				function(e, value) {return undefined;},
		text:				function(e, value) {return e.value;},
		textarea:			function(e, value) {return e.value;}
	}
};


// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// The formTiddler Macro Handler 
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

config.macros.formTiddler.handler = function(place,macroName,params,wikifier,paramString,tiddler) {
	if (!config.macros.formTiddler.checkForExtensions(place, macroName)) {
		return;
	}
	// --- Parsing ------------------------------------------

	var i = 0; // index running over the params

	// get the name of the form template tiddler
	var formTemplateName = undefined;
	if (i < params.length) {
		formTemplateName = params[i];
		i++;
	}

	if (!formTemplateName) {
		config.macros.formTiddler.createErrorElement(place, "No form template specified in <<" + macroName + ">>.");
		return;
	}


	// --- Processing ------------------------------------------

	// Get the form template text. 
	// (This contains the INPUT elements for the form.)
	var formTemplateTiddler = store.getTiddler(formTemplateName);
	if (!formTemplateTiddler) {
		config.macros.formTiddler.createErrorElement(place, "Form template '" + formTemplateName + "' not found.");
		return;
	}
	var templateText = formTemplateTiddler.text;
	if(!templateText) {
		// Shortcut: when template text is empty we do nothing.
		return;
	}

	// Get the name of the tiddler containing this "formTiddler" macro
	// (i.e. the tiddler, that will be edited and that contains the data)
	var tiddlerName = config.macros.formTiddler.getContainingTiddlerName(place);

	// Append a "form" element. 
	var formName = "form"+formTemplateName+"__"+tiddlerName;
	var e = document.createElement("form");
	e.setAttribute("name", formName);
	place.appendChild(e);

	// "Embed" the elements defined by the templateText (i.e. the INPUT elements) 
	// into the "form" element we just created
	wikify(templateText, e);

	// Initialize the INPUT elements.
	config.macros.formTiddler.initValuesAndHandlersInFormElements(formName, DataTiddler.getDataObject(tiddlerName));
}


// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Form Data Access 
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

// Internal.
//
// Initialize the INPUT elements of the form with the values of their "matching"
// data fields in the tiddler. Also setup the onChange handler to ensure that
// changes in the INPUT elements are stored in the tiddler's data.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.initValuesAndHandlersInFormElements = function(formName, data) {
	// config.macros.formTiddler.trace("initValuesAndHandlersInFormElements(formName="+formName+", data="+data+")");

	// find the form
	var form = config.macros.formTiddler.findForm(formName);
	if (!form) {
		return;
	}

	try {
		var elems = form.elements;
		for (var i = 0; i < elems.length; i++) {
			var c = elems[i];
		
			var setter = config.macros.formTiddler.setter[c.type];
			if (setter) {
				var value = data[c.name];
				if (value != null) {
					setter(c, value);
				}
				c.onchange = onFormTiddlerChange;
			} else {
				config.macros.formTiddler.displayFormTiddlerError("No setter defined for INPUT element of type '"+c.type+"'. (Element '"+c.name+"' in form '"+formName+"')");
			}
		}
	} catch(e) {
		config.macros.formTiddler.displayFormTiddlerError("Error when updating elements with new formData. "+e);
	}
}


// Internal.
//
// @return [may be null]
//
config.macros.formTiddler.findForm = function(formName) {
	// We must manually iterate through the document's forms, since
	// IE does not support the "document[formName]" approach

	var forms = window.document.forms;
	for (var i = 0; i < forms.length; i++) {
		var form = forms[i];
		if (form.name == formName) {
			return form;
		}
	}

	return null;
}


// Internal.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.setSelectOneValue = function(element,value) {
	var n = element.options.length;
	for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
		element.options[i].selected = abego.getOptionsValue(element,i) == value;
	}
}

// Internal.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.setSelectMultipleValue = function(element,value) {
	var values = {};
	for (var i = 0; i < value.length; i++) {
		values[value[i]] = true;
	}
	
	var n = element.length;
	for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
		element.options[i].selected = !(!values[abego.getOptionsValue(element,i)]);
	}
}

// Internal.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.getSelectOneValue = function(element) {
	var i = element.selectedIndex;
	return (i >= 0) ? abego.getOptionsValue(element,i) : null;
}

// Internal.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.getSelectMultipleValue = function(element) {
	var values = [];
	var n = element.length;
	for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
		if (element.options[i].selected) {
			values.push(abego.getOptionsValue(element,i));
		}
	}
	return values;
}



// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Helpers 
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

// Internal.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.checkForExtensions = function(place,macroName) {
	if (!version.extensions.DataTiddlerPlugin) {
		config.macros.formTiddler.createErrorElement(place, "<<" + macroName + ">> requires the DataTiddlerPlugin. (You can get it from http://tiddlywiki.abego-software.de/#DataTiddlerPlugin)");
		return false;
	}
	return true;
}

// Internal.
//
// Displays a trace message in the "TiddlyWiki" message pane.
// (used for debugging)
//
config.macros.formTiddler.trace = function(s) {
	displayMessage("Trace: "+s);
}

// Internal.
//
// Display some error message in the "TiddlyWiki" message pane.
//
config.macros.formTiddler.displayFormTiddlerError = function(s) {
	alert("FormTiddlerPlugin Error: "+s);
}

// Internal.
//
// Creates an element that holds an error message
// 
config.macros.formTiddler.createErrorElement = function(place, message) {
	return createTiddlyElement(place,"span",null,"formTiddlerError",message);
}

// Internal.
//
// Returns the name of the tiddler containing the given element.
// 
config.macros.formTiddler.getContainingTiddlerName = function(element) {
	return story.findContainingTiddler(element).id.substr(7);
}

// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Event Handlers 
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

// This function must be called by the INPUT elements whenever their
// data changes. Typically this is done through an "onChange" handler.
//
function onFormTiddlerChange (e) {
	// config.macros.formTiddler.trace("onFormTiddlerChange "+e);

	if (!e) var e = window.event;

	var target = resolveTarget(e);
	var tiddlerName = config.macros.formTiddler.getContainingTiddlerName(target);
	var getter = config.macros.formTiddler.getter[target.type];
	if (getter) {
		var value = getter(target);
		DataTiddler.setData(tiddlerName, target.name, value);
	} else {
		config.macros.formTiddler.displayFormTiddlerError("No getter defined for INPUT element of type '"+target.type+"'. (Element '"+target.name+"' used in tiddler '"+tiddlerName+"')");
	}
}

// ensure that the function can be used in HTML event handler
window.onFormTiddlerChange = onFormTiddlerChange;


// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Stylesheet Extensions (may be overridden by local StyleSheet)
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

setStylesheet(
	".formTiddlerError{color: #ffffff;background-color: #880000;}",
	"formTiddler");


//============================================================================
// checkForDataTiddlerPlugin Macro
//============================================================================

config.macros.checkForDataTiddlerPlugin = {
	// Standard Properties
	label: "checkForDataTiddlerPlugin",
	version: {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 0, date: new Date(2005, 12, 14)},
	prompt: "Check if the DataTiddlerPlugin exists"
}

config.macros.checkForDataTiddlerPlugin.handler = function(place,macroName,params) {
	config.macros.formTiddler.checkForExtensions(place, config.macros.formTiddler.label);
}



//============================================================================
// newTiddlerWithForm Macro
//============================================================================

config.macros.newTiddlerWithForm = {
	// Standard Properties
	label: "newTiddlerWithForm",
	version: {major: 1, minor: 0, revision: 1, date: new Date(2006, 1, 6)},
	prompt: "Creates a new Tiddler with a <<formTiddler ...>> macro"
}

config.macros.newTiddlerWithForm.handler = function(place,macroName,params) {
	// --- Parsing ------------------------------------------

	var i = 0; // index running over the params

	// get the name of the form template tiddler
	var formTemplateName = undefined;
	if (i < params.length) {
		formTemplateName = params[i];
		i++;
	}

	if (!formTemplateName) {
		config.macros.formTiddler.createErrorElement(place, "No form template specified in <<" + macroName + ">>.");
		return;
	}

	// get the button label
	var buttonLabel = undefined;
	if (i < params.length) {
		buttonLabel = params[i];
		i++;
	}

	if (!buttonLabel) {
		config.macros.formTiddler.createErrorElement(place, "No button label specified in <<" + macroName + ">>.");
		return;
	}

	// get the (optional) tiddlerName script and "askUser"
	var tiddlerNameScript = undefined;
	var askUser = false;
	if (i < params.length) {
		tiddlerNameScript = params[i];
		i++;

		if (i < params.length && params[i] == "askUser") {
			askUser = true;
			i++;
		}
	}

	// --- Processing ------------------------------------------

	if(!readOnly) {
		var onClick = function() {
			var tiddlerName;
			if (tiddlerNameScript) {
				try {
					tiddlerName = eval(tiddlerNameScript);
				} catch (ex) {
				}
			}
			if (!tiddlerName || askUser) {
				tiddlerName = prompt("Please specify a tiddler name.", askUser ? tiddlerName : "");
			}
			while (tiddlerName && store.getTiddler(tiddlerName)) {
				tiddlerName = prompt("A tiddler named '"+tiddlerName+"' already exists.\n\n"+"Please specify a tiddler name.", tiddlerName);
			}

			// tiddlerName is either null (user canceled) or a name that is not yet in the store.
			if (tiddlerName) {
				var body = "<<formTiddler [["+formTemplateName+"]]>>";
				var tags = [];
				store.saveTiddler(tiddlerName,tiddlerName,body,config.options.txtUserName,new Date(),tags);
				story.displayTiddler(null,tiddlerName,1);
			}
		}

		createTiddlyButton(place,buttonLabel,buttonLabel,onClick);
    }
}

//}}}


/***
!Licence and Copyright
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Peggy P. Quesenberry ppqberry@vt.edu

Foundations of Education Lesson 1: Assignment Worksheet

(6 points) Why I Chose the Teaching Profession:

I did not begin teaching, I worked in industry. Through my job I learned I was good at training and motivating people. New hires were assigned to me when I was on the line working. Later in a management position, I still enjoyed working with new hires or with those being retrained. It was something at which I was successful. I found a program at the local community college that interested me, and I took classes part time.
Eventually I found an employment opportunity at Virgina Tech, submitted an application and was hired. As soon as possible I began taking classes to complete my undergraduate degree in Career and Technical education. From there I moved right into the master’s degree program. During this time, my position duties were undergoing review and things begin to change. With the arrival of a new department head, I was asked to start teaching some classes, which was in my private plan!
Since then I am regularly scheduled to teach two classes per semester, and help with others. My role title changed, but remains a staff position. So I teach in additon to some other work duties, and work full eight hours days. I completed an Ed.S degree during this time too.
Is a Ed.D or Ph.D in the future? I doubt it. I am very happy in the classroom without the added pressure to do research and produce articles and all the work that tenure track faculty must keep doing.
The industry work and experience is a key factor in the decision to have me begin teaching, along with earning the advanced degrees, MS and EdS.
I have real world examples and pictures to share with students, as opposed to images in a textbook. Contacts within the industry have helped me to faciliate a number of special speakers and fieldtrips.
On the negative side, I tend to lose patience with fresh out college faculty who have never worked in the industry that they profess to be experts in teaching about.

(8 points) My Job Conditions:

I teach in lecture spaces, design, assembly, and computer laboratories. Of course I would like to have top of the line, state of the art equipment, however this is the real world. And I speak to my students about the conditions they may work in upon graduation. Our industry is such that there are huge companies that can afford the best, and there are the mom ‘n pop operations that get by on a shoestring. I try to prepare students to be ready for either, as opportunity abounds in many places.
Each year I am given a budget total to work with for maintaining the equipment, purchase of new as needed (pending approval), and supplies.
As this is a state institution, there are rules and guidelines, but for the most part, they are reasonable and I am able to work within those with little difficulty.
Stress for me in usually of my own making. As long as I stay on top of getting the grading completed, I am fine. But there is no one to help me if I fall behind and I really try to not take it home. As I tell students, I design the in class assignments to be completed at that time, so I should get a better handle on designing worthwhile student work that I can get graded and returned in a timely manner.
I teach to the course proposal that has been approved by the deparment, collge and university curricu;um committees. There is some leeway with the syllabus, and I have tweaked it to keep up with the latest trends and practices in the industry and with technology.

(6 points) My Goals for This Course:
a. To gain a better understanding of the under pinnings of teaching as a profession.
b. Explore the basics of education and teaching
c. Understand what secondary teachers are dealing with as they prepare students for college
d. I want to learn about anything that will help me to have a better classroom atmosphere for learning.
e. Learn more about how lawmakers tend to undermine (that is not quite the right word, but it means what I want to say) teachers.

 
Foundations of Education Lesson 2: Assignment Worksheet	 

For the Lesson 2 assignment, you will reflect on the lesson readings and learning activities and write an eight- to ten-page, double-spaced synopsis paper.  State your reflections on the points listed below as concisely as possible, using good grammar and correct spelling.  There are 40 total points possible for this paper. 

Note: Five (5) total points will be awarded for adhering to specified length (8 to 10 pages, double-spaced), the use of logical and clear writing, proper grammar and correct spelling.

(5 points) Education in Ancient Cultures & Important Historical Eras:
Address the elements of different ancient and world educational systems that have made important contributions to education in general, and specifically to classroom practice.  In composing your answer, consider the following BIG IDEA question: 

“What elements of different world educational systems do I think make (or should make) important contributions to education in general?”


(5 points) The "-isms" of Education: 
Address the philosophies (e.g., idealism, realism and pragmatism) and theories (progressivism, critical theory, perennialism, and essentialism) of education and how they impact (or should impact) classroom practice.  In composing your answer, consider the following BIG IDEA question: 

“With what philosophies and theories of education do I most agree and why?”


(5 points) Check Your Understanding Exercise: 
Provide your answers to the Check Your Understanding exercise (provided via a link on Screen 3 of the lesson), along with a two or three sentence justification for each answer.  


(5 points)  Educators Who Made a Difference: 
Comment on four or five educators from the past who have had what you consider to be a major positive or negative impact on education and why. In composing your answer, consider the following BIG IDEA question:

“Which educator-philosophers of the past have made a major positive or negative impact on educational thought and practice?” 


(5 points)  Evolution of American Education: 
Comment on the issues and events in the history of American education that you believe have made a major impact on current educational practice. Refer to both the text and video in your answer.  In composing your answer, consider the following BIG IDEA question:

“What issues and topics addressed in the video and in chapter 6 of the text have made a major impact on current educational practice?”


(10 points)  Reflection & Application: Philosophy of Education & Personal Practice: 
Use three or more pages to address how all the above topics covered in the paper impact, or should impact, your own personal philosophy of education and professional practice.  In composing your answer, consider the following BIG IDEA questions:

“What elements of different world educational systems do I think have made important contributions specifically to my educational philosophy and professional practice?”

“What philosophies and theories of education impact (or should impact) my personal philosophy of education and my professional practice?”

“Which educator-philosophers of the past have emphasized a certain philosophy of education or practice with which I either strongly agree or strongly disagree?  Why do I agree or disagree with their philosophy or educational practice?”

“What issues and events in the history of American education have made a major impact on my own thoughts about education and teaching?”

“In light of this lesson, what are some of the elements that I think I should include in my own personal philosophy of education?”

START YOUR PAPER BELOW.  USE HEADINGS TO IDENTIFY EACH SECTION OF YOUR PAPER.

Good Intentions Are Not Enough:
A Decolonizing Intercultural Education

By Paul C. Gorski
Founder, EdChange
Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Education
Hamline University

gorski@edchange.org
http://www.EdChange.org

September 13, 2007

Abstract

Despite unquestionably good intentions on the parts of most people who call
themselves intercultural educators, most intercultural education practice supports, rather
than challenging, dominant hegemony, prevailing social hierarchies, and inequitable
distributions of power and privilege. In this essay I describe a philosophy of decolonizing
intercultural education—an intercultural education dedicated, first and foremost, to
dismantling dominant hegemony, hierarchies, and concentrations of power and control. I
argue that attaining such an intercultural education requires, not only subtle shifts in
practice and personal relationships, but also important shifts of consciousness that
prepare us to see and react to the sociopolitical contexts that so heavily influence
education theory and practice.

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

I remember the invitations: red text on a white background, the title of the event
in curly bold face surrounded by a crudely drawn piñata, a floppy sombrero, and a
dancing cucaracha. A fourth grader that year, I gushed with enthusiasm about these sorts
of cultural festivals—the different, the alien, the other—dancing around me, a dash of
spice for a child of white flighters. Ms. Manning distributed the invitations in mid-April,
providing parents a few weeks to plan for the event, which occurred the first week of
May, on or around Cinco de Mayo.

A few weeks later my parents and I, along with a couple hundred other parents,
teachers, students, and administrators crowded into the cafeteria for Guilford Elementary
School’s annual Taco Night. The occasion was festive. I stared at the colorful
decorations, the papier machet piñatas designed by each class, then watched as my
parents tried to squeeze into cafeteria style tables built for eight-year-olds. Sometimes the
school hired a Mexican song and dance troupe from a neighboring town. They’d swing
and sway and sing and smile and I’d watch, bouncing dutifully to the rhythm, hoping
they’d play La Bamba or Oye Como Va so I could sing along, pretending to know the
words. If it happened to be somebody’s birthday the music teacher would lead us in a
lively performance of Cumpleaños Feliz and give the kid some Mexican treats.

¡Olé!

Granted, not a single Mexican or Mexican-American student attended Guildford
at the time. Although I do recall Ms. Manning asking Adolfo, a classmate whose family
had immigrated from Guatemala, whether the Taco Night tacos were “authentic.” He
answered with a shrug. Granted, too, there was little educational substance to the
evening; I knew little more about Mexico or the Mexican American experience upon
leaving Taco Night than I did upon arriving. Still, hidden within Taco Night and the
simultaneous absence of real curricular attention to Mexicans, Mexican Americans,
Chicanos, and other Latinos, were three critical and clarifying lessons: (1) Mexican
culture is synonymous with tacos; (2) “Mexican” and “Guatemalan” are synonymous,
and by extension, all Latino people are the same, and by further extension, all Latino
people are synonymous with tacos (and, to a similar extent, sombreros and dancing
cucarachas); and (3) white people really like tacos, especially the kind in those hard,
crunchy shells, which, I learned later, don’t actually exist in Mexico.

Thus began my intercultural education: my introduction to the clearly identifiable
“other.”

And I could hardly wait until Pizza Night.

Introduction

As I look back, twenty-six years later, through my educator and activist lenses,
what I find most revealing—and most disturbing—about Taco Night and my other early
experiences with intercultural education is intent. Or, more precisely, lack of intent.I
assume that the adults—the teachers and administrators—at Guilford Elementary School
believed that this event had educational merit. I am sure they believed that events like
Taco Night were more age-appropriate for fourth graders than, say, a critical examination
of U.S. imperialist intervention in Latin America. And I am equally certain that they
intended for my classmates and me to leave that evening with an appreciation for

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

Mexican or Mexican American culture. I am certain, all these years later, that the
educators at Guilford did not intend to inflate the stereotypes about Chicana/os and
Latina/os into which the media and my parents and church had been socializing me since
birth. I am equally certain that they did not intend to reify my growing sense of racial and
ethnic supremacy by essentializing the lives and diverse cultures of an already-oppressed
group of people, then presenting that group to me as a clearly identifiable “other.” But
that is exactly what they did.

Unfortunately, my experience and a growing body of scholarship on intercultural
education and related fields (such as multicultural education, intercultural
communication, anti-bias education, and so on) reveal a troubling trend: despite
overwhelmingly good intentions, most of what passes for intercultural education practice,
particularly in the U.S., accentuates rather than undermining existing social and political
hierarchies (Aikman, 1997; Diaz-Rico, 1998; Gorski, 2006; Hidalgo, Chávez-Chávez, &
Ramage, 1996; Jackson, 2003; Lustig, 1997; Nieto, 2000, 1995; Schick & St. Denis,
2005; Sleeter, 1991; Ulichny, 1996). And this is why the very framework we construct
for examining and encouraging intercultural education reveals, among other things, the
extent and limits of our commitments to a genuinely intercultural world. The questions
are plenty: Do we advocate and practice intercultural education, as too often happens, so
long as it does not disturb the existing sociopolitical order?; so long as it does not require
us to problematize our own privilege?; so long as we can go on celebrating diversity,
meanwhile excusing ourselves from the messy work of social reconstruction?

And can we practice an intercultural education that does not insist first and
foremost on social reconstruction for equity and justice without rendering ourselves
complicit to existing inequity and injustice? In other words, if we are not battling
explicitly against the prevailing social order, are we not, by inaction, supporting it?

Such questions cannot be answered through a simple review of teaching and
learning theory or an assessment of educational programs. Instead, they oblige all of us
who would call ourselves intercultural educators to reexamine the philosophies,
motivations, and world views that underlie our consciousnesses and our work. Because
the most destructive thing any of us can do is to oppress or otherwise disenfranchise
people in the course of attempting to do intercultural education.

In this essay—my response to a request from the International Association for
Intercultural Education (on whose Board of Directors I sit) to share my philosophy of
intercultural education—I offer my continuously evolving, always incomplete reflections
on these questions. I organize these reflections into two primary arguments. The first of
these arguments is that, in fact, any framework for intercultural education that does not
have as its central and overriding premise a commitment to the establishment and
maintenance of an equitable and just world can be seen as a tool, however well-
intentioned, of a sort of educational colonization in which inequity and injustice are
reproduced under the guise of interculturalism. Secondly, I argue that transcending a
colonizing intercultural education and engaging one more authentically intercultural
requires in educators deep shifts in consciousness rather than the sorts of simple
pragmatic or programmatic shifts that too often are described as intercultural education.

I begin by providing a brief contextualization for these arguments and how U.S.
and world sociopolitics inform my analysis. I do so to demonstrate what I believe to be
the most important shift in consciousness for intercultural educators: one from the

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

interpersonal to the sociopolitical. I contend that the invisibility, minimization, or
softening of sociopolitical context in the dominant intercultural education discourse
(Gorski, 2006)—particularly that related to systemic economic exploitation through
racism, sexism, xenophobia, and other oppressions—feeds unintentionally colonizing
intercultural education practice. I contend, as well, that it is particularly critical that those
of us who are practicing intercultural education from positions of privilege (including
me—a white, male, first-language-English-speaking, U.S. university professor) connect
our work explicitly to sociopolitical context.

Sociopolitical Context

The world may be flat, as Friedman (2006) wrote, for the corporate elite, but for
the rest of us—the workers, the teachers, the wage-earners, those of us without stock
options and lobbyists—the world is as round and inhibiting as ever. Even while economic
power brokers invite us into an unabashed celebration of globalization, corporate elites—
often with the help of legislative co-conspirators—demonstrate greater and greater
propensities for expanding their markets and finding ever-cheaper labor. They
demonstrate, as well, propensities for accelerating economic inequality worldwide
(Chossudovsky, 2003). And so globalization, although pitched as the pathway toward
economic growth and stability, even in the poorest countries in the world, has proven to
be little more than a contemporary form of mass economic exploitation—a vehicle for
what Harvey (2005) calls the new imperialism and what Chossudovsky (2003) calls the
globalization of poverty.

Corporations and their government allies employ a variety of techniques to
maintain among the people something on a continuum between compliance and
complicity with this exploitation. In Colombia, U.S. corporations such as Chiquita
Brands International fund paramilitaries to protect their interests, often through the most
physically and psychologically violent means (Bussey & Dudley, 2007). It is not
uncommon for Colombian teachers who dare to voice an opinion about, for example,
their government’s complicity with U.S. corporate interests, to be assassinated (Klein,
2004). Within the U.S., where federal education policy is firmly under the thumbs of
corporate elites in the form of the Business Roundtable, the public education system itself
(along with increasingly conglomerated corporate-controlled media) is becoming, more
and more explicitly, a vehicle for socializing citizens into compliance and complicity
(Chomsky, 2003; Gabbard, 2003). We can observe this infestation of corporate influence
on the education system in one of its most disturbing manifestations in the emerging
hegemony regarding the purposes of education in the U.S. Although the idea has long
existed that education’s primary purpose is to prepare people to find employment and
economic stability, only recently has the language commonly used to describe this
attitude—preparing students to compete in the global marketplace—become so explicitly
capitalist and market-centric.

As corporations and their lobbyists garner more and more control over all manner
of policy and legislation, they gain greater and greater access to the systems, such as
education, that facilitate the flow of ideas, access to knowledge, and popular perception.
A clear and complex illustration of this process can be found in analyses of the

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

weakening over the last decade of laws prohibiting the very sort of media super-
conglomeration happening today in the U.S. The outcome of these processes is the
centralization of control of virtually every mainstream newspaper, magazine, film studio,
television station, and radio station in the country into the hands of five corporations
(Bagdikian, 2004). And as a result, these media, like the education system, have become
tools for socializing a compliant and complicit populace into a market hegemony that
normalizes consumer culture (with the help of a president insisting that we respond to the
9/11 attacks by shopping), glorifies corporate imperialism (with language such as
liberating the Iraqi people), and conflates capitalism with democracy. The ideals
underlying and driving these shifts often are described as neoliberalism.

One of the key neoliberal strategies for socializing the masses into complicity
with corporate interests is the propagation through media and schooling of deficit
theory—an approach for justifying inequality that is enjoying a resurgence in the western
world today. Deficit theory, a remnant of colonial and imperial history (Shields, Bishop,
& Mazawi, 2005), holds that inequality is the result, not of systemic inequities in access
to power, but of intellectual, moral, and spiritual deficiencies in certain groups of people
(Collins, 1988). Deficit theorists draw on stereotypes already well-established in the
mainstream psyche (Osei-Kofi, 2005; Rank 2004; Tozer, 2000)—such as through
television shows that paint all African American people as urban thugs or all gay men as
promiscuous—in order to pathologize particular communities rather than problematizing
the individual or systemic perpetrators of their oppressions (Shields et al., 2005; Villenas,
2001).

Deficit theory has been used throughout history to justify imperial or colonial
pursuits. For example, European colonialists justified Native American genocide and
slavery in the U.S. in part by painting native peoples and African slaves as “savages”
who required taming and civilizing—the white man’s burden. Deficit theory is used in
similar ways today, such as to justify imperial U.S. intervention in the Middle East.

But it is used, as well, to justify the dissolution of human rights and the
quickening transfer of power from the people to corporations. In order to accomplish this
justification, capitalist elites use their access to the media and schools to effectively
blame certain groups of people, such as the poor and indigenous communities, for a
plethora of social ills and the general decay of society, rendering them, in the public’s
eye, undeserving of economic or social justice (Gans, 1995). In the U.S., economically
disadvantaged people, from the homeless to poor single mothers, have become
particularly vulnerable targets for deficit theorists, as have undocumented immigrants.
The capitalist fruits of this process are two-fold: (1) the deterioration of support for public
policy meant to alleviate social, political, and economic marginalization, which, among
other things, helps justify the erosion of welfare programs in the U.S.; and (2) the
diversion of the public’s attention and energy away from movements that critique
continued corporate empowerment and toward movements that intend to eradicate
inequality by “fixing” deficient people instead of colonizing systems. “Fixing” in this
case often means assimilating—as in assimilating poor students into the very structures
and value systems that oppress them, as today’s dominant discourse on poverty and
education in the U.S. calls on educators to do.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB)—President Bush’s landmark federal policy for

U.S. schools, composed largely by the Business Roundtable and other big business

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

cooperatives—epitomizes the deficit approach. Its reliance on a largely corporate model
of standardization and accountability demonizes schools (and as a result, students,
teachers, and school administrators) based on a narrow conception of student
performance even while it wholly ignores the very structural conditions—including those
within the system, such as inequitable school funding, and those outside the system, such
as the scarcity of living wage jobs—that so heavily influence students’ educational
opportunities. Meanwhile, several aspects of the legislation, such as mandated testing and
an insistence that schools use so-called “scientifically-based” reading programs, provide
additional economic pipelines from a supposedly public education system to the big
businesses that provide these materials and services.

As I explained in a previous essay (Gorski, 2006), most of what people refer to as
intercultural or multicultural education—including scholarship, teacher preparation
courses, or educational programs—fails to take this sort of context into account. As a
result, we expend much energy fighting symptoms of these larger oppressive conditions
(such as interpersonal cultural conflicts) instead of fighting the conditions themselves.
And this is exactly the point. It is what we are socialized to do. The powers that be are
thrilled that we host Taco Night instead of engaging in authentic anti-racism; that we
conduct workshops on the so-called culture of poverty instead of holding corporations
and governments responsible for the growing economic inequities that inform systemic
educational inequities.

As an intercultural educator in the U.S., the journey toward acknowledging this
sociopolitical context leads me daily into a corridor with two doors. I see most people
who call themselves intercultural educators stepping through the first door—the one,
easiest to reach, that allows access to a space where they can avoid this cynicism and
concern over power and oppression; a space where these conditions are accepted, either
as normal or inevitable; a space where we celebrate diversity, communicate
interculturally, and resolve conflict without spending an ounce of energy on
reconstructing society at any fundamental level. And I am tempted to follow suit, to
participate, with good intentions, in intercultural dialogue and skim along the surface of
cultural awareness. I see few people and even fewer organizations choosing the second
door—the one, heavy and inconveniently placed, that leads to a space of personal and
institutional vulnerability. Like every intercultural educator, I must choose: will I comply,
doing intercultural education in ways that do not disturb these sociopolitical realities? Or
will I choose vulnerability, practicing intercultural education for nothing less than social
reconstruction? And what does my decision reveal about me?

Colonizing Intercultural Education: To Whose Benefit?

I have spent—and continue to spend—countless agonizing hours in that corridor,
slipping in and out of both doors. And I have arrived at this conclusion: the practice of
intercultural education, when not committed first and foremost to equity and social
justice—to the acknowledgement of these realities and the disruption and destruction of
domination—might, in the best case, result in increased cross-group awareness and
conflict resolution at an individual level. But in many cases, such practice is domination.

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

And in any case, ignoring systemic oppression means complying with it. And to whose
benefit? Who or what are we protecting?

In her discussion of the emergence of intercultural education in Latin America,
Aikman (1997) observes that it “developed out of concern and respect for indigenous
knowledge and practices, but primarily in response to the exploitation, oppression and
discrimination of indigenous peoples” (p. 466). With this conception in mind, Aikman
reports, indigenous organizations throughout the region lobbied extensively for
intercultural education. Governments responded and, along with organizations they
enlisted to articulate and promote their “intercultural” visions, began codifying their
commitments to intercultural education—or, more precisely, to candy-coated versions of
it. For example, Foro Educativo (as cited by Aikman, 1997), an NGO hired to help the
Peruvian government conceptualize intercultural education, offered this definition:

Interculturality in education is a space for dialogue which recognises and values

the wealth of cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity in the country, promotes the

affirmation and development of different cultures which co-exist in Peru and

constitutes an open process towards cultural exchange with the global society. (p.

469)
This vision echoes themes found in most conceptualizations of intercultural education—
especially those offered by people and organizations in positions of power and privilege.
Cushner (1998), a leading U.S. voice in the field, offers a similar vision, explaining that
intercultural education

recognizes that a genuine understanding of cultural differences and similarities is

necessary in order to build a foundation for working collaboratively with others. It

also recognize[s] that a pluralistic society can be an opportunity for majority and

minority groups to learn from and with one another, not a problem as it might be

viewed by some. (p. 4)
These views synthesize the sorts of goals most often identified within definitions of
intercultural education: the facilitation of intergroup and intercultural dialogue, an
appreciation of diversity, and cultural exchange. But they also demonstrate why
intercultural education quickly became a target of scorn and scrutiny among many of the
indigenous communities who once enthusiastically supported it (Aikman, 1997; Bodnar,
1990). This sort of framework for intercultural education, they argued, according to
Aikman (1997), “maintains the distribution of power and forms of control which
perpetuate existing vertical hierarchical relations... Thus, this interculturality remains
embedded in relations of internal colonialism” (p. 469). In other words, an intercultural
education constructed on the basis of these visions becomes a tool for the maintenance of
the very marginalization that progressive educational movements ought to dismantle
(Gorski, 2006; Lustig, 1997; Sleeter, 1991)—marginalization that supports, at a systemic
level, the interests of the powerful at the expense of the oppressed.

Take, for example, the goal of intergroup, cross-cultural, and intercultural
dialogue—a hallmark of intercultural education practice. Research indicates that
participation in these sorts of intercultural education experiences can result, at least in the
short-term, in changes in attitudes and cross-group relationships among individual people
(Dessel, Rogge, & Garlington, 2006; Rozas, 2007; Vasques Scalera, 1999). However,
absent from this scholarship is evidence that intergroup dialogue has any positive effect
whatsoever on eliminating, or even mitigating, systemic inequities or injustices, either

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

within educational organizations or across one or more societies (DeTurk, 2006). But this
body of scholarship does include several studies that reveal the colonizing and
dominating outcomes of intergroup or intercultural dialogue when it is not grounded
explicitly in an acknowledgement of inequities in access to power—including imbalances
of access to power among the participants themselves—and a bigger movement toward
social reconstruction for equity and justice (DeTurk, 2006; James, 1999; Jones, 1999;
López-Garay, 2001; Maoz, 2001; Wasserman, 2001).

This sort of colonization and domination through intergroup or intercultural
dialogue reveals itself in a variety of ways. For example, such dialogues usually involve
groups that, according to Maoz (2001),

are involved in asymmetrical power relations. Such are the planned contacts

between Whites and African Americans in the United States, Whites and Blacks

in South Africa, and ... representatives of the Jewish majority and Palestinian

minority in Israel. (p. 190-191)
But far too often these experiences are facilitated—controlled—in ways that assume that
all participants sit at an even table (Jones, 1999), one at which all parties have equitable
access to cultural capital. According to Jones (1999), such dialogical experiences tend to
focus on the goal of mutual empathy—a goal that requires dominated people to
empathize with people who are, or who represent, their oppressors. Jones (1999) asks,

What if ‘togetherness’ and dialogue-across-difference fail to hold a compellingly

positive meaning for subordinate ethnic groups? What if the ‘other’ fails to find

interesting the idea of their empathetic understanding of the powerful, which is

theoretically demanded by dialogic encounters? (p. 299)
Which people and systems do we protect when we request such empathy from dominated
groups without first demanding equity and justice from the powerful?

Dialogue experiences and other intercultural education practices reinforce
prevailing colonizing and dominating hegemony as well when, absent a central focus on
social reconstruction for equity and social justice, the rules of engagement require that
disenfranchised participants render themselves more vulnerable to the powerful than they
already are. In fact, on some level, this demand necessarily exists during any dialogic
encounter between two or more people who inhabit different points on the dominator-
dominated continuum. Jones (1999) explains what she calls the “imperialist resonances”
of such conditions for cross-cultural exchange: “In attempting, in the name of justice, to
move the boundary pegs of power into the terrain of the margin-dwellers, the powerful
require them to ‘open up their territory’” (p. 303). The powerful—who, as individuals or
institutions, usually control (whether implicitly or explicitly) rules of engagement in
intercultural education experiences—tend to leave unacknowledged the reality that the
marginalized voices they invite into these dialogues do not need, either educationally or
spiritually, organized opportunities to hear and consider the voices of the powerful. After
all, they already are immersed in these voices (Jones, 1999) through the media,
education, and so on. So not only are these sorts of intercultural education experiences ill-
conducive to a movement for real social change, but they also reify existing power
hierarchies (Maos, 2001).

What is worse: participants from dominant groups, according to Vasques Scalera
(1999), enjoy personal growth and fulfillment from these intercultural practices at higher
rates than those from subordinate groups. And isn’t this—the powerful gaining cultural

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

capital on the backs of the oppressed, who often, regardless, are compelled to participate
(as they are in school curricula, teacher education courses, or staff development
workshops)—an example of colonizing education?

This brand of intercultural education, in which we focus on interpersonal
relationships and cultural awareness, the power hierarchy firmly in place even within our
intercultural practice, is exactly the kind of diversion-in-the-name-of-interculturalism
that serves the colonizing interests of the powerful. I believe that we can call ourselves
authentic intercultural educators only when we ensure that our work—every moment of
it—pushes against, rather than reifying (even if unintentionally so), colonizing education.

Decolonizing Intercultural Education

One of the most dangerous dimensions of prevailing educational hegemony in the

U.S. and, increasingly, across the western world, is a culture of pragmatism. Exacerbated
by a flood of education policy that requires assessment of student, teacher, and
administrator performance on the basis of standardized test scores, the culture of
pragmatism dissuades deeply theoretical or philosophical discourses among educators in
favor of discourses focused on immediate, practical strategies and resources. I find, for
example, that educators who attend my workshops increasingly show resistance to
activities and discussions aimed at deepening theoretical understanding and
consciousness. Many seem to want, instead, a series of lesson plans immediately
implementable in their own classrooms. To be certain, I do not blame my fellow
educators for this desire. After all, we all are victims of this culture of pragmatism; of its
de-professionalization of the teaching professions; of its power to lure us away from a
discourse of what could be in education; and of how it limits the education reform
discourse to minor shifts in practice—to Taco Nights and intergroup dialogues and
cultural exchanges—that, despite good intentions, colonize more than they liberate.
Unfortunately, because we, as educators, are socialized into this culture, because
we are immersed in it, there seems to be little resistance to it. This is why I contend that
the first step toward authentic intercultural practice is undertaking critical shifts in
consciousness that acknowledge sociopolitical context, expand the discourse, raise
questions regarding control and power, and inform, rather than centering, parallel shifts
in practice. It is difficult work—transcending dominant hegemony, turning our attention
away from the cultural “other” and toward systems of power and control. Those of us
who choose this door must acknowledge realities which we are socialized not to see. We
must contend with cognitive dissonance. We must admit complicity. But how can we do
otherwise, risking the possibility that our well-intentioned work will devolve into
sustenance for the status quo, and still call ourselves intercultural educators?

I describe here several shifts of consciousness that, I propose, are fundamental to
preparing a larger shift from a colonizing to a decolonizing intercultural education. Many
of these shifts, in the most basic terms, refer to seeing what we are socialized not to see
and pushing back against dominant hegemony; against its diversions from systemic
dominance and our complicity with that dominance.

I see these shifts as developmental in nature. I continue to struggle, from my place
of relative privilege, with many of them.

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

Shift #1: Cultural Awareness Is Not Enough

Rather than focusing on cultural awareness or understanding differences, I must
expose hegemonic meaning-making regarding difference (as compared with hegemony’s
appointed “norm”). Culture and identity differences may inform individual interactions,
but even more importantly, they affect one’s access to power. The powerful exploit
differences from the hegemonic norm to justify dominance and oppression. I especially
must avoid the sorts of cultural awareness activities that other or essentialize non-
dominant groups or that, absent a commitment to social justice, require dominated groups
to make themselves even more vulnerable for the social or educational benefit of the
privileged.

Shift #2: Justice First, Then Conflict Resolution

Too often, intercultural educators conflate conflict resolution and peace with
justice. When equity and social justice are not firmly in place, peace and conflict
resolution merely reify the existing social order. I must not allow intercultural education
to become yet another vehicle for the maintenance of order by resolving conflict,
meanwhile leaving injustices unresolved.

Shift #3: Rejecting Deficit Theory

Any approach to intercultural education that explains inequality by demonizing
disenfranchised communities should be exposed as colonizing practice and abandoned. I
must be wary of any supposed intercultural model or paradigm that, like the “culture of
poverty” myth, attributes traits, values, or world views to any group based on a single
dimension of their identities. I must recognize deficit theory as a diversion from a
commitment to dismantling systemic oppression.

Shift #4: Transcending the Dialogic Surface

Like conflict resolution, intergroup or intercultural dialogue rarely occurs among
people with equal access to power. So instead of facilitating such experiences with the
false assumption of an even table, I must acknowledge the power imbalances, both
individual and systemic, in play. In addition, I must avoid facilitating dialogic
experiences in which the least powerful participants are expected to teach the most
powerful participants about bias and oppression. Similarly, I must not contribute to
colonizing practice by focusing exclusively on commonalities between the powerful and
oppressed, minimizing disenfranchisement.

Shift #5: Acknowledging Sociopolitical Context

A few years ago I attended a symposium on globalization intended primarily for
corporate CEOs and upper-level managers. Between presentations I stood in the hallway
with a group of attendees as they debated the optimum unemployment level for the

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

U.S.—the optimum, that is, not for securing living wage jobs for all workers, but for
maximizing their profits. One attendee, white and middle-aged, argued that “his people”
insisted that the current level of unemployment was perfect—just enough to ensure
sufficient demand for jobs. Another attendee, a little older and flanked by a younger
colleague, explained that “his people” informed him that a half-percentage or so rise in
the unemployment rate would sure help keep wages down and curb workers’ bargaining
power for better benefits. I stood, jaw agape, while these men, polished from head to toe,
compared notes on how many of their fellow citizens should be sacrificed to the gods of
capitalism by the wealthiest of the wealthy.

Today, as I attend symposia and conferences on class and poverty, I find an
equally troubling reality: a dominant discourse that, ignoring this sociopolitical context,
centers on ending poverty by “lifting” individual people into the middle class (often
without even acknowledging the existence of the biggest socioeconomic strata in the
U.S.—the working class) through job skills and education. If I, as an intercultural
educator, fail to see how ludicrous such propositions—like the idea that we can end
poverty or economic exploitation without dismantling a power hierarchy that sustains
itself on un-and under-employment, on the globalization of poverty—are, given the
present sociopolitical context, then I am doomed, despite good intentions, to doing the
bidding of the powerful in the name of intercultural education.

Shift #6: “Neutrality” = Status Quo

People often ask me why I make education so political. Shouldn’t I, as an
intercultural educator, be more balanced and neutral, appreciative of all opinions and
world views? But I must remember that I practice colonizing education when I claim or
attempt neutrality in my intercultural work. In fact, the very act of claiming neutrality is,
in and of itself, politically value-laden and supportive of the status quo. As such, my
intercultural work must be explicitly political and value-laden, against domination and for
liberation; against prevailing hegemony and for critical consciousness; against
marginalization and oppression and for equity and justice.

Shift #7: Accepting a Loss of Likeability

Practicing decolonizing intercultural education requires that I speak truth to power
and explicitly challenge prevailing hegemony and hierarchy. I have come to the
unfortunate conclusion that I cannot undertake these challenges authentically without
being disliked by many individuals and most institutions. In fact, I must acknowledge
that, as a white, heterosexual, first-language-English-speaking man in the U.S., I have
access to a degree of institutional likeability that most people of color, lesbians and gay
men, people who speak first languages other than English, and women do not enjoy, and
that this discrepancy is based on nothing more than unearned privilege. So I, in effect,
must be willing to spend my likeability, to take on dominance and systemic oppression so
vigorously that I risk losing the trust and respect of the powerful. After all, if I and my
educational practice are not seen by the powerful as threatening to their dominance, as
terrifying to their sense of entitlement and control, then I am not an intercultural educator.

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

Conclusion

I have not intended in this essay to offend the sensibilities or question the
commitments of those of us who refer to ourselves as intercultural educators. To the
contrary—much of my analysis begins with my own practice and my own struggles to
abandon the path of least resistance and choose a more authentic intercultural education.

This analysis has led me to a philosophy of intercultural education that insists,
first and foremost, on the establishment and maintenance of an equitable and just world.
It has led me, as well, to the conclusion that such a philosophy cannot be achieved
through intercultural programs or slight curricular shifts. I cannot effectively enact
authentic intercultural education so long as I—in mind and soul—am colonized; so long
as I allow myself to be socialized to do the bidding of the powerful through well-
intentioned, colonizing practice. I must begin by liberating myself, determined to deepen
my consciousness about the sociopolitical contexts and implications of my practice. And
only then—when I can say that my work decolonizes instead of colonizes; that my work
challenges dominant hegemony rather than reifying it; that my work transcends Taco
Night and prevailing intercultural discourses of cultural awareness, conflict resolution,
and celebrating diversity—can I call myself an intercultural educator.

Good Intentions Are Not Enough

References

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democracy. International Review of Education, 43(5), 463-479.

Bagdikian, B. (2004) The new media monopoly (Boston, MA: Houghton)

Bodnar, Y. (1990) Aproximación a la Etnoeducación como elaboración teorica, in
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Bussey, J., and Dudley, S. (2007) U.S. companies under scrutiny for payoffs to terrorists.
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Chomsky, N. (2003) The function of schools: Subtler and cruder methods of control, in:

K. Saltman & D. Gabbard (Eds.), Education as enforcement: The militarization
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Collins, J. (1988). Language and class in minority education. Anthropology & Education
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Cushner, K. (1998) Intercultural education from an international perspective: An
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education, 1-14 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates)

Day, R. (2001). Who is this we that gives the gift? Native American political theory and
the western tradition. Critical Horizons, 2(2), 173-201.

Dessel, A., Rogge, M.E., & Garlington, S.B. (2006). Using intergroup dialogue to
promote social justice and change. Social Work, 51(4), 303-315.

DeTurk, S. (2006) The power of dialogue: Consequences of intergroup dialogue and their
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Díaz-Rico, L.T. (1998) Toward a just society: Recalibrating multicultural teachers, in: R.
Chávez Chávez & J. O’Donnell (Eds.), Speaking the unpleasant: The politics of
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Friedman, T. (2006) The world is flat: A brief history of the Twenty-First Century (New
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Good Intentions Are Not Enough

Gabbard, D. (2003). Education is enforcement!: The centrality of compulsory schooling
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Gans, H. J. (1995). The war against the poor: The underclass and antipoverty policy
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Gorski, P.C. (2006) Complicity with conservatism: The de-politicizing of multicultural
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Harvey, D. (2005). The new imperialism (New York, NY: Oxford University Press USA)

Hidalgo, F., Chávez-Chávez, R., & Ramage, J. (1996) Multicultural education:
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Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (2nd ed.), 761-778
(New York, NY: MacMillan)

hooks, b. (1994) Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom (New
York, NY: Routledge)

Jackson, C.W. (2003) Crystallizing my multicultural education core, in: G. Gay (Ed.),

Becoming multicultural educators: Personal journey toward professional agency,

42-66 (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass)

James, M.R. (1999). Critical intercultural dialogue. Polity, 31(4), 587-607.

Jones, A. (1999) The limits of cross-cultural dialogue: Pedagogy, desire, and absolution
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Klein, R. (2004) Teachers under fire in war-torn Colombia. Times Educational
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López-Garay, H. (2001) Dialogue among civilizations: What for? International Journal
on World Peace, 18(1), 15-33.

Lustig, D.F. (1997) Of Kwanzaa, Cinco de Mayo, and whispering: The need for
intercultural education. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 28(4), 574-592.

Maoz, I. (2001) Participation, control, and dominance in communication between groups
in conflict: Analysis of dialogues between Jews and Palestinians in Israel. Social
Justice Research, 14(2), 189-207.

Nieto, S. (2000) Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education
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Nieto, S. (1995) From brown heroes and holidays to assimilationist agendas, in: C.
Sleeter and P.L. McLaren (Eds.), Multicultural education, critical pedagogy, and
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Osei-Kofi, N. (2005) Pathologizing the poor: A framework for understanding Ruby
Payne’s work. Equity & Excellence in Education, 38, 367-375.

Rank, M.R. (2004) One nation, underprivileged: Why American poverty affects us all
(New York, NY: Oxford University Press)

Rozas, L. (2007) Engaging dialogue in our diverse social work student body: A
multilevel theoretical process model. Journal of Social Work Education, 43(1), 5

29.
Vasques Scalera, C.M. (1999) Democracy, diversity, dialogue: Education for critical
multicultural citizenship. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Michigan

Schick, C., & St. Denis, V. (2005) Troubling national discourses in anti-racist curricular
planning. Canadian Journal of Education, 28(3), 295-317.

Shields, C.M., Bishop, R., & Mazawi, A.E. (2005) Pathologizing practices: The impact
of deficit thinking on education (New York, NY: Peter Lang)

Sleeter, C. (1991) Introduction: Multicultural education and empowerment, in: C. Sleeter
(Ed.), Empowerment through multicultural education, 1-23 (Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press)

Tozer, S. (2000) Class. In D. Gabbart (Ed.), Knowledge and power in the global
economy: Politics and the rhetoric of school reform (pp. 149-159). Mahway, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ulichny, P. (1996) Cultures in conflict. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 27, 331

364.
Villenas, S. (2001). Latina mothers and small-town racisms: Creating narratives of
dignity and moral education in North Carolina. Anthropology & Education
Quarterly 32(1), 3-28.

Wasserman, H. (2001). Intercultural dialogue in recent Afrikaans literary texts: A
discourse of identity. Pretexts: Literary and Cultural Studies, 10(1), 37-49.

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Humanism

Summary: Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfil one’s potential.

Key proponents: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Malcolm Knowles

Key terms: self-actualization, teacher as facilitator, affect

Humanism

Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s, focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with intentionality and values. This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning. Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest.

Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. A primary purpose of humanism could be described as the development of self-actualized, automomous people. In humanism, learning is student centered and personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key, and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment.

Related theories include: Experiential Learning (Kolb), Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and Facilitation Theory (Rogers).

For more information, see:

* DeCarvalho, R. (1991). The humanistic paradigm in education. The Humanistic Psychologist, 19(1), 88-104.
* Huitt, W. (2001). Humanism and open education. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved September 11, 2007, from the URL: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/affsys/humed.html.
* Rogers, C., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedom to learn (3rd Ed.). New York: Macmillan.
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Educational inequity occurs when a group of students does not have access to learning opportunities that are available to other groups of students, and when the quality and standard of education provided to one group is much lower than that provided to other groups of students. There are many interrelated causes of educational inequity: · recruitment of the most effective teachers to higher-paying jobs in more affluent school districts; · inequitable housing policies that result in residential segregation; · income gaps that result in school funding inequities when there is heavy reliance on local taxes; and · a lack of representation for underserved populations (such as the poor, immigrants, and language and racial minorities). Effective solutions to such problems require a general awareness on the part of the public and the cooperation of many social institutions including community groups, religious organizations, schools, a variety of stakeholders and government. Of course, problems of inequity are complicated when populations of immigrants with limited English language skills are involved. In such cases, problem resolution and adequate representation requires a working knowledge of the target language and culture of the affected population. In this lesson, you will consider these and other causes of educational inequity and what you can do to minimize their effects in your classroom while maximizing the interpersonal learning opportunities. Focus Questions · What sort of social and economic situations lead to educational inequities? · What educational inequities have I experienced and what inequities exist in my school? · What are the consequences of growing up poor in the U.S.? What are the consequences of growing up poor in my community, my local school district or my city? · What is social capital? What is meant by "ideology?" · What communities am I part of or identified with, and what advantages or social capital do I have as a result of my membership in those communities? · What can I do to minimize the effect of educational inequities in my classroom while maximizing the interpersonal learning opportunities?

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<<crossIndex notetopic>>

http://www.learning-theories.com/

learning theories database

    * Home
    * Index of Learning Theories and Models
    * Definitions
    * Paradigms
    * Books and Resources

Index of Learning Theories and Models

Mind LearningTheories and Models of Learning for Educational Research and Practice. This knowledge base features learning theories that address how people learn. A resource useful for scholars of various fields such as educational psychology, instructional design, and human-computer interaction. Below is the index of learning theories, grouped in somewhat arbitrary categories. Note that this website is an iterative project and these entries are a work in progress; please leave comments with suggestions, corrections, and additional references.

We need writers!  Please contribute new entries or revisions to this knowledge base.  Email your contribution to: info [at] learning-theories.com.

Paradigms:

    * Behaviorism
    * Cognitivism
    * Constructivism
    * Design-Based
    * Humanism

Behaviorist Theories:

    * Behaviorism Overview
    * Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
    * GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)
    * Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
    * Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Cognitivist Theories:

    * Cognitivism Overview
    * Assimilation Theory (Ausubel)
    * Attribution Theory (Weiner)
    * Component Display Theory
    * Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
    * Gestalt Psychology (Tolman)
    * Mental Models (Johnson-Laird)
    * Schema Theory
    * Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Constructivist, Social, and Situational Theories:

    * Constructivism Overview
    * Case-Based Learning
    * Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.)
    * Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger)
    * Discovery Learning (Bruner)
    * Goal Based Scenarios
    * Social Development Theory (Vygtosky)
    * Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
    * Situated Learning (Lave)

Motivational and Humanist Theories:

    * Humanism Overview
    * ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
    * Experiential Learning (Kolb)
    * Facilitative Teaching (Rogers)
    * Invitational Learning (Purkey)
    * Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Design Theories and Models (Prescriptive):

    * Design-Based Research Overview
    * ADDIE Model of Instructional Design
    * ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
    * Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

Descriptive and Meta Theories:

    * Activity Theory (Vygotsky, Leont’ev, Luria, Engstrom, etc.)
    * Actor-Network Theory (Latour, Callon)
    * Distributed Cognition (Hutchins)

Identity Theories:

    * Erikson’s Stages of Development (Erikson)
    * Identity Status Theory (Marcia)

Miscellaneous Learning Theories and Models:

    * Affordance Theory (Gibson)
    * Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)

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Categories

    * Behaviorist Theories (4)
    * Cognitive Theories (3)
    * Constructivist Theories (5)
    * Descriptive Theories (3)
    * Design Theories & Models (3)
    * Humanist Theories (3)
    * Identity Theories (2)
    * Learning Theories & Models (9)
    * Motivation Theories (2)
    * Paradigms and Perspectives (5)
    * Social Learning Theories (2)


 

 
5 Responses to “Index of Learning Theories and Models”

   1. jp Talarmin Says:
      August 30th, 2007 at 4:12 am

      Very useful site. Thank you
   2. efi fadilah Says:
      September 10th, 2007 at 7:43 am

      Thanks a lot. I learned some valuable insights from this site.
   3. Ursula Holley Says:
      October 20th, 2007 at 1:49 am

      Thank you for putting this information in such a easy to read and useful format. I was able to ingtegrate some of the basic information into a theory base for a nursing research project. I will definitely use this site again and spread the word amongst my colleagues- thank you!
   4. rebecca tucker Says:
      October 25th, 2007 at 9:30 pm

      we have used your site alot in our psycology class and i find it both very informitive and easy to navigate and understand. thank you very much.
   5. Susan Menzies Says:
      November 28th, 2007 at 11:31 am

      Thank you. Life saver was struggling to understand all the different theories. This has simplified them and made them easy to understand. I’ll be back!

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Lesson 10 References:
American Association of School Administrators (AASA). (2002). Using data to improve schools: What's working. Retrieved November 8, 2007 from: http://aasa.files.cms-plus.com/PDFs/Publications/UsingDataToImproveSchools.pdf 
Bandura, A., & Schunk, D.H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 568-578. 
Barber, M., & Mourshed, M. (2007). How the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. London, UK: McKinsey & Co. Retrieved November 7, 2007 from: http://www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/socialsector/resources/pdf/Worlds_School_Systems_Final.pdf
Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R. (2000).&nbsp; How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school.&nbsp; Washington, D.C.:National Academy Press.&nbsp; Available online at:&nbsp; http://newton.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/
Covey, S.R. (1994). The seven habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal change. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Diamond, M. (1988).&nbsp;Enriching heredity: The impact of the environment on the anatomy of the brain. New York: The Free Press.
English, F.W. (1983) Contemporary curriculum circumstances. In F.W. English (ed.), Fundamental Curriculum Decisions. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 
Gardner, H. (1983).&nbsp;Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.&nbsp; New York: Basic Books.
Gregory, G.H., & Kuzmich, L. (2004). Data driven differentiation in the standards-based classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Jacobs, H.H. (1997). Mapping the big picture: Integrating curriculum & assessment K-12. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 
Knowles, M.S. (1970). Modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York: Association Press.
Marzano, R.J. (1998). A theory-based meta-analysis of research on instruction.&nbsp; Aurora, CO: Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning.
Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001).&nbsp; Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement.&nbsp; Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Morgan, M. (1985). Reward-induced decrements and increments in intrinsic motivation. Review of Educational Research, 54(1), 5-30. 
National Center for Research in Vocational Education (NCRVE). (1987). Plan instruction for adults, Module N-4. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. Retrieved February, 13, 2006 from: 
http://www-ed.fnal.gov/lincon/staff_adult.shtml
Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 
Rotherham, A. (July 25, 2006 ). Making the cut: How states set passing scores on standardized tests. Education Sector Explainer. Retrieved February 9, 2007 from: http://www.educationsector.org/analysis/analysis_show.htm?doc_id=385844
Smith, M. K. (2002) 'Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm. Last updated: October 20, 2005. 
Sternberg, R.J. (2000). Handbook of human intelligence. New York:Cambridge University Press
Sullivan, H., & Higgins, N. (1983). Teaching for competence. New York: Teachers College. 
Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners (pp. 66-67). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wiggins, G.P., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding By Design. (2nd edition).&nbsp; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Yatvin, J. (2004). A room with a differentiated view: How to serve all children as individual learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann

Upon completion of this lesson, you will...
· be familiar with the meaning of the terms "pre-assessment," "norm-referenced" and "criterion-referenced," "formative and summative assessment," and "alternative assessments;"
· consider how you can collect and use assessment data to diagnose your students' learning needs and adjust your instruction to meet those needs;
· incorporate methods for designing good assessments into your instructional design;
· consider how you could use both traditional and alternative formative and summative assessments to guide your students' learning;
· consider how you provide feedback to your students on assessments and whether it is adequate for their improvement;
· consider different grouping strategies adjustable learning elements to meet the needs of diverse learners in your classroom;
all of which will enable you to...
synthesize your learning in this lesson and use the tools presented to complete
an adjustable learning grid for a portion of your content.

Learning Activity: Building a Knowledge Base

http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/Assessment/VGLA/VGLA_Q_A.pdf

Reiser & Dick (1996). Developing Assessment Tools.

PART 1
Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow in the space below, and then continue to page 2 for Part 2 of the assignment.

AYP: Annual Measurable Objectives for Reading and Language Arts

Lesson 11 –Self-Assessment: My Use of Alternative & Traditional Assessments

Print out this self-assessment and use it as a reflective tool to consider different aspects of your professional practice related to the topics in this lesson. Rate yourself on each indicator (SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly Disagree, NA = Not Applicable), then contemplate what you might do to improve the areas that concern you and enter your ideas in the bottom text box. That information will be requested on your assignment worksheet for this lesson. You can also use this periodically as a tool to assess your professional practice and use of effective assessments, and to remind yourself of areas you would like to improve.

Indicators
SA
A
D
SD
N/A

1. I regularly reflect on my classroom assessment practices and make notes on what works well and what does not work.

2. I analyze my assessments to determine whether they accurately gauge my students’ progress.

3. I use both formal and informal (non-graded) assessments, in both traditional and alternative formats.

4. I use rubrics to provide students with an idea of what is expected on an up-coming assignment, as well as for feedback and a grading tool.

5. I use a variety of formative, diagnostic assessments to gauge my students’ progress and provide them with an idea of how well they are learning the material.

6. I help my students monitor and chart their assessment results and help them devise a plan for reaching their desired performance level.

7. I clearly communicate general learning goals to my students and provide opportunities for them to develop personalized learning objectives.

8. I use peer-assessment to provide students with feedback, providing an opportunity for them to revise their work following the feedback.

9. I use peer-assessment as a portion of student grades.

10. I use peer-assessment as a portion of group work grades, encouraging students to honestly assess their group members’ contributions to the group project.

11. I use un-graded self-assessments to encourage student self-reflection and personal goal-setting.

12. Over time, I collect, or prompt students to collect, evidence of learning in portfolios (paper-, project- or electronic-based).

13. I collect and use student progress monitoring data to make changes to my instruction to meet student needs.

14. In my practices, I distinguish between assessment OF learning and assessment FOR learning.

15. I create and use rubrics with explicit criteria.

16. I use formal and informal strategies to assess deep understanding.

17. I design and use a range of strategies to promote student self-reflection and contemplation of learning.

18. I regularly make sure that students understand the standards expected of them.

19. I strive to be consistent in my assessment practices.

20. I encourage students to use self- and peer-assessment to promote metacognition and assessment AS learning.

Item # Ideas on how I can improve these items:

Lesson 12 — Final Lesson & Assignment
You can access different parts of Lesson 12 by clicking on the links below.

Final Lesson & Assignment
Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment
Discussion and Learning Activities - 1
Discussion and Learning Activities - 2
Discussion and Learning Activities - 3
Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?
Assessment: Lesson 12 Assignment
Lesson References
Lesson 12 -Final Lesson & Assignment

Focus Questions
· What lesson plan formats are available to help me plan my instruction?
· What factors are involved in differentiation and what are some of the ways I can
· differentiate my instruction?
· What do I need to know about my students to produce effective differentiated instruction?
· How do I adjust an existing lesson plan to provide for differentiation?
· How does the content of each lesson in this course impact my professional practice and philosophy of teaching?
Differentiated Instruction and Course Synthesis
This course has addressed a variety of foundational aspects of education, and this final lesson is devoted both to helping you synthesize all those aspects to determine how they will impact your personal philosophy of teaching, and to addressing more details on planning instruction. Several lessons in this course have touched on the need for differentiating your instruction to meet the needs of diverse students. As mentioned, today's schools are becoming more and more diverse and if you proactively plan in advance for differences in student needs and learning abilities, your teaching will be much more effective than if you wait and react to the challenges of a diverse classroom. This lesson will address this topic in more detail and will give you an opportunity to plan a differentiated lesson. It will also feature activities that enable you to synthesize your learning for this course.
Instructions
You have two pdf chapters and several articles to read for this lesson. One week has been allotted to allow you time to complete the readings and assignments. To proceed with this lesson, do the following:
1. Read and reflect on the focus questions above;
2. Read and consider the Lesson 12 learning objectives, below, to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson;
3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:
[yourPID]_edfdns12.doc
4. Read screens 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of this online lesson and complete the learning activities described;
5. Complete the lesson readings, which consist of articles and two pdf chapters linked from the online content of this lesson;
6. Complete your copy of the assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen.
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will...
· become familiar with several lesson planning tools;
· become aware of the many ways you can differentiate instruction to meet the needs of your students;
· reflect on your content and your students to determine how you might differentiate your instruction to meet the needs of all students in your classroom;
· develop learner profiles for exceptional students in your classroom;
all of which will enable you to synthesize your learning in this lesson to...
· coordinate the unit planning grid and adjustable learning grid you developed previously and use them to design a differentiated lesson for your content and students;
and finally, synthesize your learning for the course to...
· identify factors from each lesson and describe how they impact your professional practice and philosophy of teaching.

Proceed to the next screen to view the lesson content, activities and assignments.

Foundations of Education Lesson 12: Final Assignment Worksheet

For the final Lesson 12 assignment, you will reflect on the lesson readings and learning activities and complete this three-section assignment worksheet. Use the headings provided and expand the forms to fit your answers. There are 60 total points possible for this worksheet.

Part I – answer four (4) questions on the lesson readings (worth 20 points)
Part II – complete a lesson plan for differentiated instruction (worth 20 points)
Part III – reflect on the course content and synthesize your learning to identify the most important items that you will “take-away” and how the course information impacts your personal philosophy of teaching (worth 20 points)

Part 1: Questions 1 – 4 (worth 20 points)

(5 points) Differentiation
You were to use the VT NetLibrary subscription to read the Primer on Differentiation from one of C.A. Tomlinson’s eBooks. Use two to three double-spaced paragraphs to answer these questions on that reading:

What ideas on ways to differentiate can you apply to your instruction?
In what order would you list the 6 essential principles of differentiation presented by the authors, if you were to list them according to those you feel are most important to your own teaching practice? Briefly justify your ordering of the principles.

2. (5 points) Article on Differentiated Instruction
You were to pick one article about differentiated instruction to read from the Reading Rockets web site that you felt best relates to your content and students. Use two double-spaced paragraphs to describe the article and what you gleaned from the reading that you can use with your content and students:

(5 points) Learner Profiles
You were to write learner profiles for two diverse or exceptional students in your classroom (disabled, gifted, linguistically diverse, etc.). (If not currently teaching or if you do not teach diverse or exceptional learners, describe two exceptional or diverse learners from your past experience or from the experience of a colleague.) Include information in the profiles that you would need to develop an effective differentiated lesson that accommodates their needs. Use a paragraph to profile each learner:

(5 points) Teaching Philosophies
You were to read examples of teaching philosophies provided through links in the lesson and search for examples on the web. In the space below, provide a bulleted list of the items from those sample philosophies that you would like to include in your own philosophy of teaching and learning:

Part 2: Differentiated Lesson Plan (worth 20 points)
Use the following lesson plan template to develop a differentiated lesson plan for your students and a portion of your content, expanding the template to fit your plan, as necessary. Your lesson plan should address a portion of the content that you identified in your Lesson 10 Unit Plan, and should reflect the learner profiles completed for this lesson.

Lesson Plan Template

Differentiated Lesson Plan
Lesson Topic:
Unit:
Grade(s):

Applicable Standard/Benchmark:

Pre-Assessment Tool or Method: How will you determine the gap between what students know or can do now and what they must do for the final unit assessment?

Essential or Critical Question(s) for This Lesson: What questions will help students focus on important aspects of the topic or aspects covered by the standard?

Learning Objective(s): What must students know and be able to do after this lesson? What knowledge, skills, attitudes (KSAs), and strategies will students gain from participating in this lesson (state as learner-centered outcomes, not instructor-centered)?

Learning Assessment(s): What formative and summative assessment tools will be needed to evaluate student learning? Will students engage in self-assessment and/or peer-assessment? How can I state the assessments in language that reflects the learning objectives?

Instructional Strategies & Activities: What teaching strategies and learning activities can I use that will:
(a) build on prior knowledge & communicate the relevance of the material?
(b) enable me to model the skills or strategies that students are to learn and use?
(c) actively engage students in the content?
(d) enable students to learn cooperatively?
(e) guide them in practicing the skills in class?
(f) provide adequate independent practice through homework?
(g) provide closure including a review of key points, connections between concepts & conclusions?

Differentiation/Accommodations: What teaching strategies, learning activities, equipment & materials can I use that will provide scaffolding for delayed learners, inattentive learners, unprepared learners, hostile learners, disabled learners, culturally or linguistically diverse learners, & will challenge advanced learners?

Instructional Materials & Resources: What print and non-print instructional materials, resources, etc., will students need to engage in learning? How could the use of technology support, extend or enhance the lesson?

Part 3: Course Synthesis (worth 20 points)
Reflect on the course content by going back to review each online lesson, and then complete the following activities to help you synthesize it and apply it to your professional practice.

Content Influence on Teaching Philosophy: (10 points) At some point all teachers articulate their teaching philosophy.&nbsp;Your teaching philosophy expresses how you view role as an educator in your school and community, how you view learning and development, and the type of teaching strategies and learning theories you find most helpful for your content and learners and how you incorporate them (or intend to implement them) in your classroom practice. Complete the chart below, providing brief statements of the influential items from each lesson that would impact how you compose your philosophy of teaching. Expand the chart as needed to fit your answers.

Lesson Influential Item (Information, Tool, Concept, Strategy, etc.)
How the Item Relates to Your Teaching Philosophy
1. Understanding the Teaching Profession
2. Historical & Philosophical Foundations
3. Political, Economic & Legal Foundations
4. Social Foundations
5. Curricular Foundations
6. Issues in Education I: Inequities in Education
7. Issues in Education II: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"
8. Issues in Education III: Effective Schools & Educational Reform
9. Designing Instruction
10. Instructional Design Based on Assessment Data: I
11. Instructional Design Based on Assessment Data: II
12. Final Lesson & Assignment
List and briefly justify your “Top Five Take-Away Items” for this course. (5 points) (Can include items you listed above or other items.) What have you learned about education and instructional design that you have used or will use, and that you believe will enhance your professional practice? Explain why you chose each item, how you have – or will – utilize it, and how you think it will help you in your professional practice.

Reflecting on Learning & Practice (3 points) – Write one paragraph on how your ideas or practices have changed as a result of this course:

Improving This Course (2 points) – If you were asked to improve this course by adding, deleting or changing it, what would you recommend? Is there anything missing from the course that should be there? Were there assignments you felt were not helpful? Should the reading materials be changed, deleted or added to? Were the discussion board exercises relevant and did they contribute to your understanding of the challenges and issues involved in teaching today? Was the material practical and useful? (Do you anticipate being able to use what you learned in your teaching practice?) Please share your recommendations:
Lesson Planning Frameworks
The tool or framework that you use to plan your instruction will naturally have a big effect on how you teach. Madeline Hunter's 7-step model for lesson planning is a standard for many teachers, but there are many formats available. To get an overview of the many options available for planning lessons, explore the information and additional links provided on Dr. Holtrop's web site at: http://www.huntington.edu/education/lessonplanning/Plans.html
Writing Lesson Plans
Introductory Page
&nbsp;There are only a few essential elements of a lesson plan:
1. Objectives--what students will be able to do as a result of the lesson
2. Standards--which state content and developmental standards are addressed in the lesson
3. Procedures--what the teacher will do to get the students there
4. Assessment opportunities--what the teacher can do to see if the lesson was taught effectively:&nbsp; watching students work, assigning application activities, getting feedback, etc.&nbsp; (Can include both formal and informal assessment and both formative and summative evaluations.)
5. Modifications/accommodations for any special needs students in the class
Additionally, many lesson plans also include:
&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; Materials needed for the class period and any special equipment
&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; Time estimates, and of course
&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; Procedural Subpoints.
.
A Starting Point
Madeline Hunter lesson plan format:
(Seven-element format:&nbsp; just one way to structure a lesson; developed for math classes)
Anticipatory Set (setting the stage)--attention-getter and focuser
Statement of Objectives--tell students what they'll be able to do as a result of the lesson
Instructional Input--lecture, but not necessarily lecture: demo, explanation, instructions
Modeling--demonstrate, show what you tell
Check for Understanding--watch faces, ask questions
Guided Practice--help students start practicing new skills, applying new knowledge
Independent Practice--turn them loose to work on their own, homework assignment, etc.
Click here to see a sample history lesson plan and its seven labeled parts.
.
Other Lesson Formats:

Discovery Lesson&nbsp;&nbsp;
(e.g., lab)&nbsp;&nbsp;
· Equipment&nbsp;
· Set the stage&nbsp;
· Don't state objectives yet&nbsp;
· Give instructions&nbsp;
· Check for understanding&nbsp;
· Guided practice (lab)&nbsp;
· Discussion, regrouping&nbsp;
· Statement of objectives&nbsp;
· Independent practice (e.g. lab journal)&nbsp;
· Assessment&nbsp; Group Work&nbsp;&nbsp;
(e.g., coop learning)&nbsp;&nbsp;
· Equipment&nbsp;
· Set the stage&nbsp;
· State objectives&nbsp;
· Give instructions&nbsp;
· Check for understanding&nbsp;
· Group work&nbsp;
· Guided practice&nbsp;
· Discussion&nbsp;
· Regrouping&nbsp;
· Summary&nbsp;
· Assessment&nbsp;
&nbsp; Mini Cycles&nbsp;&nbsp;
(e.g., vocabulary lesson)&nbsp;&nbsp;
· Equipment&nbsp;
· Set the stage&nbsp;
· State objective&nbsp;
· Cycles:&nbsp;
o Instruction&nbsp;
o Check for understanding&nbsp;
o Guided practice&nbsp;
o Instruction&nbsp;
o Check for understanding&nbsp;
o Guided practice
o etc.
· Independent practice&nbsp;
· Assessment&nbsp;
Other stuff quality lessons include:

Bloom's Taxonomy&nbsp; and Critical Thinking
Knowledge—recall&nbsp;&nbsp;
Comprehension—understand&nbsp;&nbsp;
Application—use, practice&nbsp;&nbsp;
Analysis—dissect, generalize&nbsp;&nbsp; Synthesis—create, combine&nbsp;&nbsp; Evaluation—appraise, value&nbsp;&nbsp; Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
Verbal
Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal Instructional Scaffolding (Jerome Bruner;
Langer & Applebee)
Ownership--wish to learn&nbsp;
Appropriateness--right level&nbsp;
Support--structured guidance&nbsp;
Collaboration--coaching&nbsp;
Internalization--independent&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; practice&nbsp;
Click here for sample lesson plan with Bloom's Taxonomy levels labeled Click here for sample lesson plan with Multiple Intelligences labeled Click for sample lesson plan with Instructional Scaffolding components labeled
&nbsp;

Another very helpful framework featured in several of the ALPS courses is Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction. Robert Gagne (1972) identified nine “events” of a lesson that are similar to those found in other teaching models. Gagne's nine events include:
1. Gaining attention.
2. Informing the learner of the objective.
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning.
4. Presenting the stimulus materials (instruction or activities).
5. Providing learning guidance.
6. Eliciting performance.
7. Providing feedback.
8. Assessing performance.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer.
Click here for a template for Gagne's nine events that can be used for lesson planning.
Gagne's model is helpful because it hits the major points and is not too involved; however, it does not specifically address differentiation. The readings for this lesson will provide other ways of planning lessons that are more conducive to differentiation. You are encouraged to "customize" one of the existing models or tools to develop a format that fits your planning needs.
Learning Activity:

1. Data Driven Lesson Plans - Read the following chapter from the Gregory & Kuzmich (2004) book, Data Driven Differentiation:

Chapter 7 - "Data Driven Lesson Planning for Differentiated Learning," pages 173-190 (18 pp.).
As you read, begin to take notes on how you would fill out the template for differentiated learning illustrated on page 176. You are encouraged to use this template or a version of it for the Lesson 12 assignment. Save your work for the Lesson 12 assignment.

Instructional Theories
Select one of the instructional theories from below to obtain information on instructional strategies and tactics related to the theory:
The Nine Events of Instruction
According to Robert Gagne, these events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.
ARCS - Motivation Theory
According to John Keller, there are four major categories of motivational strategies: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.
ARCS - Motivation Theory

According to John Keller, there are four major categories of motivational strategies: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.
(Click on a link below to search the IDDE database for related instructional strategies)
Attention
· Perceptual Arousal&nbsp;
Gain and maintain student attention by the use of novel, surprising, incongruous, or uncertain events in instruction.
· Inquiry Arousal
Stimulate information-seeking behavior by posing, or having the learner generate, questions or a problem to solve.
· Variability
Maintain student interest by varying the elements of instruction.
Relevance
· Familiarity
Adapt instruction, use concrete language, use examples and concepts that are related to the learner's experience and values to help them integrate new knowledge.
· Goal Orientation
Provide statements or examples that present the objectives and utility of the instruction, and either present goals for accomplishment or have the learner define them.
· Motive Matching
Adapt by using teaching strategies that match the motive profiles of the students.
Confidence
· Expectancy for Success
Make learners aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
· Challenge Setting
Provide multiple achievement levels that allow learners to set personal goals or standards of accomplishment, and performance opportunities that allow them to experience success.
· Attribution Molding
Provide feedback that supports student ability and effort as the determinants of success.
Satisfaction
· Natural Consequences
Provide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or simulated setting
· Positive Consequences
Provide feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired behavior
· Equity
Maintain consistent standards and consequences for task accomplishment

Elaboration Theory
According to Charles Reigeluth, his elaboration theory specifies that instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning.
Elaboration Theory

According to Charlie Reigeluth, there are seven major strategy components to elaboration theory.
(Click on a link below to search the IDDE database for related instructional strategies)
(1) an elaborative sequence,
(2) learning prerequisite sequences,
(3) summary,
(4) synthesis,
(5) analogies,
(6) cognitive strategies, and
(7) learner control. For more information, see http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/reigelut.html

Ways to Differentiate Instruction
In previous lessons you developed a unit plan for your instruction and you learned how to pre-assess your students to determine their familiarity with the topic to know where to start the instruction. You also practiced using an adjustable learning grid to handle variations in student knowledge within your class. For this lesson, you will select a lesson plan format and design lesson for a portion of the content you identified in your unit planning grid.
The lesson plan you develop should be differentiated. In other words, it should include a variety of strategies and assessments that you can use to address the needs of diverse or exceptional learners in your class. Take a moment to review again Tomlinson's comparison of a traditional and a differentiated classroom (1999, p. 16).
Determining the "Norm" & Developing Exceptional Student Profiles
To design effective differentiated lessons, you must first know something about your class as a whole and the exceptional students. The pre-assessments you conduct will often provide information on what the "norm" is for your students with respect to the content you must teach. A pre-test will frequently indicate that the majority of students are at a certain level with the content, but that other students vary with respect to their abilities and background knowledge. In addition to pretests, you can use other methods to find out about student interests, attitudes, habits, past experiences, and home and community support. Such methods include student interviews, parent surveys, student checklists of likes and dislikes, published reading inventories designed to assess student literacy strengths and weaknesses, published skills analyses, and even videotaped reading performances that can be analyzed in detail. More informal assessments, such as teacher observations, can also give you an idea of your students' abilities.
For years, teachers have aimed the design of their instruction at the abilities of the "norm" group, or majority of students. These are the so-called "average" students in the middle of the bell curve, as illustrated below:

It takes a bit more preparation to meet the needs of the exceptional students in your classroom who perform either above or below the average. Exceptional students at both ends of the bell curve have a need to "fit in" both socially and academically with opportunities to participate, collaborate and find their own levels of comfort and challenge. Gifted students may need help but they may also be able to give help to others, and you can develop a differentiated lesson plan that includes opportunities for peer-mentoring.
In addition to assessments, you can prepare for exceptional students by:
· studying school records to find out their academic levels and their successes and problems from the past;
· talking to people who know the students (teachers, parents and diagnostic specialists or therapists); and
· talking to the students themselves to gauge their attitudes toward school, schoolwork, teachers and classmates.
As you collect information, you can begin to develop short student profiles for exceptional students (both disabled and gifted students) that will help as you consider your curriculum, organizational structures, classroom routines, and behavioral expectations. As you differentiate, the successes your students achieve will encourage you to look for more ways to scaffold disabled students and to challenge and give gifted students more independence. Click here for more ideas on how to plan for differentiation.
Strategies for Differentiation
Your text reading for this lesson recommends using creative planning and flexible grouping as a basis for differentiation. The authors also mention several things you can adjust to differentiate instruction (examples are provided in parentheses):

Method Example
Content & materials Provide several different levels of reading materials for the course content.
Communication & technology Provide the information in several media formats, such as print, audio, and video.
Multiple intelligences Provide learning activities and choices for assessment activities that address the various multiple intelligences (see details in Lesson 10, Screen 4).
Readiness Group students so that the more advanced learners can help the novice learners.
Interest & choice Allow students to choose the format or topic for an assigned project.
Process Use a variety of learning and practice activities such as concept maps, hands-on activities, and questioning to ensure that students understand the material.
Social Plan learning activities so that students feel safe, invited, and welcome to participate.
Learning Environment Plan the environment with all students in mind, so that distractions are minimized, and adaptive technology is available if needed.
Another way to adjust for readiness is to adjust the complexity of tasks, learning activities and assessments. Tomlinson (1999) recommends adjusting several variables to design activities that move students toward more independence. Her "equalizer" tool illustrates a continuum of several factors that can be used to evaluate both students and assignments to match task difficulty to learner readiness:

Items to Evaluate Are they more... or More...
Information, ideas, materials, applications Foundational Transformational
Representations, ideas, applications, materials Concrete Abstract
Resources, Research, Issues, Problems, Skills, Goals Simple Complex
Directions, Problems, Application, Solutions,
Approaches, Disciplinary Connections Single Facet Multifacted
Application, Insight, Transfer Smaller Leap Greater Leap
Solutions, Decisions, Approaches More Structured More Open
In Process, In Research, In Products Clearly Defined Fuzzy Problems
Planning, Designing, Monitoring Less Independence Greater Independence
Pace of Study, Pace of Thought Slower Quicker
There are additional examples of ways to differentiate instruction provided in the readings for this lesson.
Learning Activity:

1. Differentiation - C.A. Tomlinson wrote three books on differentiation all entitled, Differentiation in Practice: A Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum. Each book provides the perspective of a different grade level (elementary, middle, and high school). Access the VT library subscription to NetLibrary (click here for instructions on accessing NetLibrary) and search for the books by title. Read "Part I: A Primer on Differentiation" in the eBook that targets the grade level you teach. Once you've located the eBooks, pick one of the following to read:
Grades K-5 (2003), Part I: A Primer on Differentiation - pp. 1-14
Grades 5-9 (2003), Part I: A Primer on Differentiation - pp. 1-16
Grades 9-12 (2005), Part I: A Primer on Differentiation - pp. 1-18
What ideas on ways to differentiate can you apply to your instruction? In what order would you list the 6 essential principles of differentiation presented by the authors, if you were to list them according to those you feel are most important to your own teaching practice?
2. Article on Differentiated Instruction - Pick one article about differentiated instruction from the following site to read. Select an article that you feel best relates to your content and students:

http://www.readingrockets.org/article/c64

Use two paragraphs to describe the article and the information about differentiation that you would like to remember from it. Comment on how you can specifically use the information for your own content and students.
3. Learner Profiles - Provide learner profiles for two diverse or exceptional students in your classroom (disabled, gifted, linguistically diverse, etc.). If you are not currently teaching or do not have what you consider diverse or exceptional learners in your classroom, describe two exceptional or diverse learners from your past experience or from the experience of a colleague. Include information in the profiles that you would need to develop an effective differentiated lesson that accommodates their needs.
Save your work for the Lesson 12 assignment.
Choosing Differentiation Strategies
Yatvin (2004) suggests the following questions for developing a "mental filter" to help you identify promising ideas and strategies to use for differentiation in your classroom. She characterizes worthwhile ideas as those that have learning value, are practical for classrooms, are appealing to students, and that give students a balance between freedom and control.
Does the idea offer my students...
· rich content that will capture their interest and expand their horizons?
· several different possibilities for levels of performance?
· a high degree of independence in choosing and carrying out their work?
· structural models to help them stay on track?
· reasonable expectations for time, materials, and skills?
· check points for decision making, self-regulation, and self-criticism?
Does the idea allow me, as a teacher...
· to give explanations and instructions to the whole class?
· to work with small groups and individual students that need my help?
· to supervise and monitor student work without feeling overwhelmed?
· to delegate some responding, suggesting, and editing responsibilities to students or other adults? (Yatvin, 2004, p. 132)
Current Differentiation Practices: Lexiles & Quantiles
In this course you've considered a wide variety of student data that can be used to determine your students' abilities and knowledge. One of the current methods used to quantify student levels in math, reading and writing, are Lexiles and Quantiles. They are developmental scales conceived by a company called MetaMetrics.&nbsp; Lexiles are used to match reader ability with text difficulty. Quantiles measure a student's math and problem-solving abilities and enable educators to target instruction by identifying the mathematical skills a student is ready to learn and&nbsp;those that require&nbsp;more instruction.
The Lexile scale is currently one of the most popular of the difficulty scales that are used to judge reading materials (other examples being grade-leveled texts, and ratings for predictability and decodability). Such numeric scales are promoted as standards that can be applied worldwide to a variety of reading and math systems, and are being adopted by many school systems, book vendors and curriculum companies. If your school uses a standardized scale, knowledge of your students’ scores allows you to group or differentiate instruction more easily. &nbsp;In addition, since many of these scores are used nationwide and with multiple educational supply companies, knowing a student’s score makes it easier for you to know the academic levels of transient students. To find out more about some of these scales, use the links provided on Screen 5 of this lesson.
This lesson just hits the highlights of differentiation. You can learn more about differentiated instruction in the ALPS Curriculum and Instructional Procedures course.
Formulating a Philosophy of Teaching
At some point in your career, you will be asked to share your philosophy of teaching in verbal or written form. A teaching philosophy reflects your understanding of the educational knowledge base, your own content knowledge, your beliefs about teaching and learning, what you believe your role is as a teacher and what sort of relationship you think you should foster with your students, the learning theories you think work for you, and how your beliefs and experiences have shaped your teaching practice. Because it is rooted in your own experiences and knowledge, your philosophy will most certainly evolve over time and you will find yourself revising each time you sit down to write out your view of the instructional process.
It is not uncommon for teachers to be asked to share their philosophy of teaching and learning during job interviews. A well-constructed and integrated answer to this question will allow you to present, in a professional manner, the essence of your belief structure, based on supportable research, concerning teaching and learning. More importantly, what you do in the classroom should be a direct result of your teaching and learning philosophy. Unfortunately, teaching practices are often impacted negatively by time constraints, administrative dictates, and resource limitations. If you have written out a teaching and learning philosophy that is based on empirical evidence, and you review it periodically, it will remind you of your values and the types of activities you want to foster in your classroom and it will help you re-focus on your ideal.
There are many things that can be included in a teaching philosophy and many ways to organize one. Oerman (1999) states that a teaching philosophy can be included as part of a teaching portfolio, and it might include:
1. Assumptions about teaching and learning processes,
2. Beliefs about how students learn best in the classroom and other contexts,
3. Beliefs about how best to teach students in different settings,
4. Beliefs about the outcomes of learning,
5. Beliefs about how to foster the development of critical thinking, values (if appropriate) and other outcomes, and
6. The teaching methods that flow from the philosophy.
A very concise organization for a teaching philosophy is one that features two sections: Principles and Narrative. The section on principles lists a series of brief, declarative statements that reflect those learning principles or facts about teaching and learning that you believe are essential to your teaching practice. The narrative should be an explanation of those principles and how you intend to incorporate them (or have incorporated them) in your practice, and what the positive effect is for your students.
If you are new to teaching, you will find it helpful to examine as many examples of teaching philosophies as you can locate. A few are listed in the learning activities below, and you can do a web search to locate those that may be more germane to your content and the grade level that you teach. For the Lesson 12 assignment, you will be asked to identify elements from this course that you would use to shape your teaching and learning philosophy.
Learning Activity:

1. Examples of Teaching Philosophies - Read the following linked examples of teaching philosophies, and then do a web search to locate other teaching philosophies that relate to your content and the grade level that you teach. (NOTE: The following teaching philosophies were produced for a Virginia Tech course on College Teaching, taught by Dr. Peter Doolittle in 2006. Permission for their use has been granted by the authors.)
Danielle Lusk - "Teaching/Learning Statement."
Ken Stanton - "Teaching Philosophy." Abby Turpyn - "Teaching & Learning Philosophy."

As you read, make a list of those items that you think you would like to include in your own philosophy of teaching and learning. Save your work for the Lesson 12 assignment.
Lesson 12: Final Assessment For this lesson you will complete an assignment worksheet that is worth a total of 60 points and has three parts:
Part I – answer questions on the lesson readings (worth 20 points)
Part II – complete a lesson plan for differentiated instruction (worth 20 points)
Part III – reflect on the course content and synthesize your learning to identify the most important items that you will “take-away” and how the course information impacts your personal philosophy of teaching (worth 20 points)
1. Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 12 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns12.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns12.doc). Follow the instructions in the worksheet and use the rubric provided below to guide your efforts in completing it. Be sure to check your work for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure.
2. Submit Assignment Worksheet for Grade - Your worksheet should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 12 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name: [yourPID]_edfdns12.doc
Expectations: (60 total points possible) Your worksheet will be graded according to the following rubric:
Synopsis Paper Criteria
Pts Poss
Standard for Full Credit

Differentiation
5
Used two to three double-spaced paragraphs to address the questions on the eBook reading by Tomlinson, including the ideas for differentiation gleaned from the reading that participant can use, and participant's ordering of the principles presented and justification for the order.

Article on Differentiated Instruction
5
Used 2-to-4 double-spaced paragraphs to describe the article on differentiation selected by the participant, and what was gleaned from the article that the participant can use.

Learner Profiles
5
Provided learner profiles for two exceptional or diverse learners in participant's classroom, or two from their prior experience or the experience of a colleague.

Teaching Philosophies
5
Provided a bulleted list of items from the sample teaching philosophies and philosophies obtained through a web search that participant would like to include in their own philosophy of teaching.

Differentiated Lesson Plan
20
Provided a differentiated lesson plan for participant's students and content that reflected learner profiles and included the following sections:
· Learning standard/benchmark (2 pts)
· Pre-Assessment (2 pts)
· Essential questions (2 pts)
· Learning objective(s) (2 pts)
· Formative & Summative learning assessment(s) (2 pts)
· Instructional strategies & activities (for prior knowledge, modeling, active engagement, cooperative learning, guided practice, independent practice, review an closure) (6 pts)
· Differentiation/Accommodation (2 pts)
· Instructional materials & resources (2 pts)

Course Synthesis
20
Thoughtfully and thoroughly completed the course synthesis, including:
· Chart of course items that will influence teaching philosophy (10 points)
· Top 5 "Take-Away" Items from the course (5 points)
· Reflection on learning & practice (3 points)
· Recommendations for improving the course (2 points)

Total Points Awarded/
Total Points Possible
/60
Comments:

Looking Ahead
Congratulations - you have finished the ALPS Foundations of Education course! You may wish to take some of the other ALPS courses to improve your knowledge and skills for your professional teaching practice:
· ALPS Classroom & Behavior Management
· ALPS Curriculum & Instructional Procedures
· ALPS Human Growth & Development
· ALPS Reading in the Content Areas
Lesson 12 References:
Gregory, G.H., & Kuzmich, L. (2004). Data driven differentiation in the standards-based classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Oerman, M. (1999). Developing a teaching portfolio. Journal of Professional Nursing, 15(4), 224-228.
Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Tomlinson, C.A., & Eidson, C.C. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating curriculum, Grades K-5. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Tomlinson, C.A., & Eidson, C.C. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating curriculum, Grades 5-9. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Tomlinson, C.A., & Stickland, C.A. (2005). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating curriculum, Grades 9-12. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wormeli, R. (2007). Differentiation: From planning to practice, Grades 6-12. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Yatvin, J. (2004). A room with a differentiated view: How to serve all children as individual learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
~~~ Congratulations! You are finished with the course! ~~~

 
Foundations of Education Lesson 3: Assignment Worksheet	 

For the Lesson 3 assignment, you will reflect on the lesson readings and learning activities and write an eight- to ten-page, double-spaced synopsis paper.  State your reflections on the points listed below as concisely as possible, using good grammar and correct spelling.  List your references at the end of the paper.  There are 30 total points possible for this paper. 

Note: There is also a discussion board assignment for this lesson that is worth 10 points, due by Thursday midnight of the week your assignment is due (use the “Assignments” button in Blackboard to view due dates).

Three (3) total points will be awarded for adhering to specified length (8 to 10 pages, double-spaced), the use of logical and clear writing, and proper grammar and correct spelling.

(7 points) Political Foundations of Education:
In this section of your paper, reflect on and use 3 to 4 double-spaced pages to address the following factors and questions dealing with the content of this section of the lesson:

How do or should local, state and federal governing bodies and the formulation of school policy impact my teaching practice?
Have schools in my district (or a district I know of) consolidated or decentralized, and if so, why?
Does my school (or a school I know of) practice shared leadership with parents and communities?  If so, how have I been involved or how has it impacted my teaching practice?
How do (or should) all these factors affect my philosophy of teaching, and how do they translate into teaching practice?
The text listed several national school organizations.  After exploring them, which ones would I likely visit to keep up on policy developments and why?
In my informed opinion, how successful has the No Child Left Behind legislation been and how does it impact or potentially impact my teaching practice?  (use three paragraphs and current sources to substantiate your position – you will also post this to the discussion board) 


(10 points) Economic Foundations of Education:
In this section of your paper, reflect on and use 2 to 3 double-spaced pages to address the following factors and questions dealing with the content of this section of the lesson:

How is my school funded and how does the funding or method of funding impact students and their academic achievement?
Do the financing decisions at the state and local levels of government affect daily activities in my classroom?
Do I have any experience with one or more of the topics discussed in this section (accountability, tuition tax credits, vouchers or school choice) and if so, how has it affected my teaching philosophy or practice?
What helpful information did I glean from the website resources provided in the text?

(10 points) Legal Foundations of Education:
In this section of your paper, reflect on and use 3 to 4 double-spaced pages to address the following factors and questions dealing with the content of this section of the lesson:

Of the teacher rights and responsibilities mentioned in the text, which three topics did I feel were most helpful to me and why?
Of the student rights and responsibilities mentioned in the text, which three topics did I feel were most helpful to me and why?
What article did I find enlightening concerning a legal law suit against a teacher?  (describe it and provide citation)
What helpful information did I glean from the exploration of websites that provided information on school laws and law cases? 
What is my school’s policy on recognizing and reporting child abuse, and how does it affect me? (if not currently teaching, you were to research the policy of a near-by school)
What are my state’s laws on homeschooling and how do I feel about the topic? (support your statements with quotes and sources from the articles and resources provided, or others)




START YOUR PAPER BELOW.  USE HEADINGS TO IDENTIFY EACH SECTION OF YOUR PAPER.

Lesson 6 Assessment:
For this lesson assignment you will reflect on the readings and learning activities to complete a four- to five-page, double-spaced paper on your choice of an aspect of educational inequity and how it impacts or should impact your practice. You will also make a bulleted list of the main points of your paper, post it to the discussion board, and reply to the lists of two of your course peers. Specifically, you will:
1. Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 6 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns6.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns6.doc). You are to write your paper in the worksheet document, following the instructions which provide choices of topics and details on the content of the paper. Use the rubric provided below to guide your efforts and be sure to check your paper for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure. In addition, be sure to substantiate any statements you make with citations from the readings or from other sources you located. Include complete references at the end of your paper.
2. Submit Assignment Worksheet Paper for Grade - Your synopsis paper should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 6 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. HOWEVER, note that in order to make your bulleted list to post by Thursday night (item #3 below), you will need your paper in close-to-final form earlier in the week. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name:
[yourPID]_edfdns6.doc
3. Discussion Board Assignment #3 - For your third course discussion board assignment, you are to make a bulleted list for each of the three sections of your paper: (a) characteristics and repercussions of the educational inequity topic chosen, (b) how that topic impacts your personal classroom practice, and (c) what you can do to minimize the effects of the inequity and capitalize on it for the benefit of your all your students. Include your bulleted lists in the body of a post by Thursday midnight of the week your assignments are due for Lesson 6 (see due dates for assignments by using the Blackboard "Assignments" button).

Reply to the lists posted by at least two of your course peers by Saturday midnight of the week assignments are due for Lesson 6.
Expectations: (40 total points possible) Your synopsis paper will be graded according to the following rubric:
Synopsis Paper Criteria Points Possible Standard for Full Credit
Characteristics & Impacts of the Educational Inequity 10 For one of the topics listed on the assignment worksheet, provided a thorough discussion of the characteristics, possible causes and impacts of the educational inequity. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites.
How Inequity Impacts Personal Classroom Practice 10 For the educational inequity chosen, provided a description of how it impacts or should impact participant's personal classroom practice. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites.
Ways to Minimize Impact & Capitalize For Benefit of All Students 10 For the educational inequity chosen, provided a thoughtful list of how the participant could minimize the effects of the educational inequity in their classroom, and capitalize on opportunities presented to benefit all participant's students. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites.
Writing mechanics 5 Paper is four-to-five double-spaced pages long (1 point), writing is logical and clear (1), and uses proper grammar and correct spelling (1), uses proper APA format for in-text citations (1) and end-of-paper references (1).
Discussion Board Posts & Replies 5 Posted bulleted lists for each section of paper to the course discussion board by Thursday midnight & provided substantive and respectful replies to at least two peer postings by Saturday midnight.
Total Points Awarded/ Total Points Possible /40 Comments:
~~~ Continue to Screen 5 to access the Lesson 6 references. ~~~
Our nation's greatest injustice
Our theory of change
In America today, educational inequity persists along socioeconomic and racial lines.
Nine-year-olds growing up in low-income communities are already three grade levels behind their peers in high-income communities.
Half of them won't graduate from high school by the time they're 18.
Those who do graduate will, on average, read and do math at the level of eighth graders in high-income communities1. Only 1 in 10 will graduate from college.
These disparities severely limit the life prospects of the 13 million children growing up in poverty today. And, because African-American and Latino/Hispanic children are three times as likely to grow up in a low-income area2, these disparities also prevent many children of color from truly having equal opportunities in life.
But it doesn't have to be this way. While the problem is daunting, we see evidence every day in classrooms across the country that when students in low-income communities are given the educational opportunities they deserve, they excel.
It is this - the clear potential of students - that makes the disparities in educational outcomes so unconscionable and fuels our sense of urgency and responsibility to do everything we can to ensure educational opportunity for all.
Read more about Teach For America's commitment to diversity.
Hear corps members and alumni talk about their personal views on this issue.

Lesson 6 - Issues in Education: Inequities in Education Lesson 6 References: Books, S. (Fall, 1998). School funding: Tinkering with equity in times of ghettoization. Educational Foundations, 53-68. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson, (Ed.) Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education. New York: Greenwood Press. Gotanda, N. (1991). A critique of “our constitution is color-blind”. Stanford Law Review, 44(1), 1-68. Harry, B., & Klingner, J. (2006). “Overview: ethnic disproportionality in special education,” and “School structure: Institutional bias and individual agency.” In Why are so many minority students in Special Education? New York: Teachers College Press. Losen, D.J., & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education. Harvard Education Press. Lye, J. (1997). “Ideology: Class resource.” Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, Brock University, Ontario, Canada. Accessed at http://www.brocku.ca/english/jlye/ideology.html Massey, D.S. and N.A. Denton (1988). The dimensions of residential segregation. Social Forces, 67, 281-315. Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1-24. Rose, M. (1989). Lives on the Boundary. New York: Penguin Books. Tarca, K. (2005). Colorblind in control: The risks of resisting difference amid demographic change. Educational Studies, 38(2), 99-119. Wyner, J.S., Bridgeland, J.M., & Diiulio, J.J. (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from lower-income families. Washington, D.C.: Civic Enterprises, LLC. Lansdowne, VA: Jack Kent Cooke Foundation.

You can access different parts of Lesson 7 by clicking on the links below.

Lesson 7 Issues II: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability" Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment Discussion and Learning Activities Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more? Assessment: Lesson 7 Assignment Lesson References
Lesson 7 - Issues: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability" Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability" Mike Rose, the author of the book Lives on the Boundary (1989), presents an atypical view of knowledge and its role in education: There is a strong impulse in American education - curious in a country with such an ornery streak of anti-traditionalism - to define achievement and excellence in terms of the acquisition of a historically validated body of knowledge, an authoritative list of books and allusions, a canon. We seek a certification of our national intelligence, indeed, our national virtue, in how diligently our children can display this central corpus of information (p. 233). In this lesson you will consider how educators and educational systems tend to determine the nature of the knowledge children are to obtain through schooling, and how many aspects of American schooling are tied to this accepted “knowledge canon.” Frequently, ability classifications, rich curriculum, and tracking are designed to align with that knowledge canon and therefore tend to favor children from the communities who can display that knowledge. The accepted knowledge canon also impacts the design of tests that are used to determine a student’s success or failure and to hold schools accountable for educating students. What is the nature of the instruction and assessments used by teachers to determine academic success and placement? Are they truly valid, neutral and sufficient? Focus Questions · What is knowledge? · Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance? If so, how? If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge? · How do our beliefs about knowledge form our assumptions about success and failure in school? · What is tracking and how does it impact my classroom practice? · Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance? · Does tracking create different students and performances? · What role do students’ perceptions of themselves and their capabilities (their identity) have in influencing their academic performance? · What do grades and GPA (Grade Point Average) indicate about students? · How do assumptions about the nature of academic success impact teacher beliefs about student ‘abilities?’ How do these beliefs impact teacher views of placement exams, curriculum, and tests? Instructions You have several articles to read and web sites to explore for this lesson and one week to complete the readings and assignment. To procede with this lesson, do the following: 1. Read and reflect on the focus questions above. 2. Read and consider the Lesson 7 learning objectives below to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson; 3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop (link provided below) and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet: [yourPID]_edfdns7.doc 4. Read screens 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this online lesson; 5. Complete the lesson readings and learning activities; 6. Complete your assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen. Lesson Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to... · articulate and defend your opinion on the impact of social class on the availability of choices and opportunities in education; · understand the meaning and use of the terms AYP, high stakes testing, tracking and de-tracking; · critically reflect on the readings and learning activities and develop a paper on some aspect of educational measurement, tracking, and/or accountability. Reading Assignment · Use the links on the following screens to access the article and web site readings for this lesson.
Lesson 7 - Issues: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability" Lesson Discussion To enter the dialogue concerning educational testing and measurement, there are several terms with which you should be familiar. What standards are used for instruction? In Virginia, the standards to which instruction is aligned (matched) are the Standards of Learning (commonly referred to as “SOLs”). The SOLs are the minimum curriculum requirements for student achievement in the state curriculum. They were developed by the Virginia Department of Education to establish standards of learning for kindergarten through the 12th grade in four academic areas: English (including reading and writing), math, science, and history and social science (history, geography, civics, and economics). They also incorporate learning standards for computer technology. Students are tested in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, and 11th grades and must pass a minimum number of high school SOL tests in order to receive a diploma. Note that each state has its own standards, for example, Texas has TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills), and West Virginia has the WESTEST (West Virginia Educational Standards Test). What is Adequate Yearly Progress? Adequate Yearly Progress. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires schools, school divisions, and states to meet annual objectives or AYP targets for student performance on statewide tests. There are 29 targets, or benchmarks, that have been identified for AYP. These benchmarks are measures of progress toward the goals established for student participation and performance on statewide tests in reading and mathematics, and they are defined for seven subgroups of students: · all students, · students who are limited English proficient (LEP), · students with disabilities, · three state-defined ethnic populations: for Virginia these are Black, Hispanic and White, and · economically disadvantaged students (defined as those eligible to receive free and reduced-price lunches) In addition, AYP dictates that school divisions and states must make progress towards meeting annual objectives for attendance in elementary and middle schools, and toward numbers of graduates in high schools. According to the requirements of NCLB, if a school misses a single benchmark in just one subgroup, the school does not make AYP (except for uncontrollable circumstances). This holds true for school divisions as well. If a school or school division fails to meet AYP for three consecutive years, schools may receive corrective action by the state, or may eventually lose their federal funding. As a result, this external accountability puts increasing pressure on administrators and teachers to consider the benchmarks and subpopulations in their schools as they plan curriculum and methodology. Teachers can no longer simply look at general student performance to plan instruction. They must also look at subgroups within their classroom to ensure not one child is 'left behind' when state tests are administered. AYP is a complicated issue, and has attracted much criticism as well as admiration for the authors of NCLB. To discern whether the law needs adjustment, consider the state of education prior to NCLB to determine whether improvements in student achievement have been realized, then consider the educational goals for the future. For instance, in its present form, NCLB says 100% of U.S. schools will be able to meet AYP in reading and mathematics by 2014. Is that a realistic goal? Each teacher has his or her own opinion of NCLB and AYP. What do you think? Have you seen evidence in your school of how AYP drives instruction? (See also http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/src/understandingayp.shtml) What is “high-stakes testing?” High-stakes testing is a method developed to implement standards and ensure accountability of schools. It refers to the use of standardized tests as criteria to determine the promotion of children to the next grade, high school graduation, teacher bonuses, and the governance and quality of schools. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 expands the role of such tests by legislating their incorporation into states' school accountability programs. While such testing has focused attention on desirable standards of knowledge and achievement, there have been many controversial by-products of the movement. Some of the negative consequences of high-stakes testing for schools and students include such issues as: · The impact of standardized testing on student drop-out, discharge and push out rates, and on dis-enrollment of students; · Problems with transferring to new schools, cheating on standardized tests, problems with grading standardized tests, GED program enrollment increases and demographic changes; · The varying impact of testing on different schools, communities and families, including the unique challenges for poorer schools and students, and the impact of heavier sanctions for Title I schools. Critics claim that high stakes tests tend to drive the curriculum, limit instructional innovation, and keep educators from establishing their own priorities and visions. They also caution that no single measure is comprehensive enough to tell us everything we need to know about schools, students and schooling experience. Claiming that high stakes-testing as a single measure has affected more than how we see schooling, they warn that it is now affecting the day-to-day practices of teachers and schooling, creating a testing culture in public schools. Many scholars are concerned that this testing culture has fundamentally changed the relationship between schools and students. One concern is that the consequences and sanctions against schools that do poorly on high stakes tests (which involve harsher penalties for Title I schools), has created a climate where school administrators feel the need to protect and recruit students who do well on testing. The readings in this lesson will help you decide what you think about the issue. What is the “the nation’s report card”? The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, also known as “The Nation’s Report Card”) is a periodic assessment of what America’s students know and can do in the areas of mathematics, reading, science, writing, the arts, civics, economics, geography and U.S. history. The NAEP has three levels of achievement (Basic, Proficient, and Advanced) that indicate what students should know and be able to do at each grade assessed for each subject assessed by NAEP. By law, the Commissioner of Education Statistics at the U.S. Department of Education is responsible for carrying out the NAEP project. The National Assessment Governing Board, a bipartisan group, sets policy for NAEP and is responsible for developing the framework and test specifications that serve as the blueprint for the assessments. Board members include governors, state legislators, local and state school officials, educators, business representatives, and members of the general public. For more, visit the NAEP site at http://nationsreportcard.gov or http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ What is tracking? Tracking is the practice, now in use for a century or more, of categorizing students into distinct groups according to certain measures of intelligence for purposes of teaching and learning. Often, this involves grouping students in “fast” and “slow” or “remedial” and “advanced” groups. Thus classified, students are then provided with curriculum and instruction that supposedly suits their abilities and potential future. Critics say that this practice often leads to racial and socioeconomic segregation within schools, and that being placed in the low track often ahs long-lasting negative effects on such students. The learning activities for this lesson will prompt you to read more on tracking and the alternative of “un-tracking” or “de-tracking.” Read the article by Anne Wheelock (1992) “Crossing the tracks: How ‘untracking’ can save America’s schools. The article is available at: http://www.middleweb.com/Whlcktrack.html or by using this course link. Bias in Educational Measures This lesson looks a little closer at the tools teachers use, and how they are assumed to be neutral when used for placement, testing and assessment. Mike Rose, author of Lives on the Boundary (1989), challenges assumptions about student error (failed performance), questioning what teachers and assessors commonly think these failures indicate, and how concepts of student failure inform teaching and assessment practices: Through all my experiences with people struggling to learn, the one thing that strikes me most is the ease with which we misperceive failed performance and the degree to which this misperception both reflects and reinforces the social order (p. 205). When teachers make sense of a student’s failed or successful performances, what do they assume about the student? What assumptions do teachers make about the validity of placement exams, curriculum, and assessment? How do these assumptions impact teaching and learning? Complete the following learning activities to find out more. NOTE: For the Lesson 7 assignment, you will be asked to write a paper on some aspect of educational measurement, tracking and/or accountability. The learning activities for this lesson should help you gather information for this assignment. Take a moment now, before tackling the learning activities, to review your topic options for the Lesson 7 paper. Learning Activities: The following learning activities involve a large amount of reading or scanning. It is important that you familiarize yourself with all the issues involved, so please at least scan all the resources listed. However, to help guide the depth with which you read or scan, you may wish to first access the Lesson 7 assignment worksheet to review the possible topics for your paper. Reading & Reflection Assignment Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment. 1. Viewing Assignment - View the 55-minute video on testing in American schools entitled "Testing Our Schools" (2003) produced by the Merrow Report and available at the Annenberg Foundation website (scroll down to #49, “Testing Our Schools”): http://www.learner.org/resources/series99.html?pop=yes&vodid=388801&pid=1098# As you view the video, take note of the pros and cons concerning the testing currently used in our educational systems, and record your thoughts to add to your Lesson 7 assignment. 2. Reading Assignment - Read or scan the following articles on testing, push out, and tracking, and record your thoughts on them for the Lesson 7 assignment: a. Kornhaber, M. (2004). Appropriate and inappropriate forms of testing, assessment and accountability. Educational Policy, 18(1), 45-70. (25 pages) As you read, think about: How do we as teachers tend to think about students error? Do we tend to think of error in a technical content, such as task analysis, or do we think of error in a social context? Why might this difference between technical and social matter? b. Orel, S. (2002). 522 students pushed out of school... This article provides an overview of the problem of “push-out.” As you read, think about: · How schools might protect and ensure positive testing student populations and how this relates to issues of equity in education. · Standardized testing and its impact on student drop-out, discharge, and push out rates, and dis-enrollment of students. · Related issues such as transferring to new schools, cheating on standardized tests, problems with grading standardized tests, demographic changes and GED program enrollment increases, and the effect of high-stakes testing on drop out rates. · How these issues affect schools, communities and families from different socio-economic backgrounds? · How do these issues relate to merit pay for teachers based on standardized test scores? c. Freedle, R.O. (2003). Correcting the SAT’s ethnic and social-class bias: A method for re-estimating SAT scores. Harvard Educational Review, 73(1). d. Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2002). High stakes testing, uncertainly, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archive, 10(18). (This article is quite long, so read through page 17 and the conclusion, and then scan the rest of the article for information that relates to the topic you chose to write about for the Lesson 7 assignment.) 3. Web Exploration - Dr. Linda Orozco of California State University, Fullerton, offers a good introduction to some of the literature and positions on tracking in education. Read the following introduction and record your thoughts on Dr. Orozco’s “questions to consider,” saving them for the Lesson 7 assignment: http://hdcs.fullerton.edu/faculty/orozco/lecturetracking.html In addition, scan the two following articles for an update and different perspective on the issue of tracking: Hallinan, M. (2004). University of Notre Dame. “The Detracking Movement” at Education Next, at: http://www.educationnext.org/20044/72.html Wells & Serna (1996). The politics of culture: understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), pp 93-116 (23 pages). As you read/scan, think about: · Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance? If so, how? If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge? · How do our assumptions about knowledge affect how we make sense of failure? · Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance? · Does tracking create different students and performances? 4. Current Status of These Issues - Read the following questions and then use the web links below to search for and find at least three (3) current (written in the last three years) education stories, special reports, and issues in the educational news sources that discuss testing, tracking and “de-tracking” (also called “un-tracking”), and push out (at least one article on each topic). Briefly write up your answers to the questions and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment. · How does standardized testing favorably and/or unfavorably impact your students and teaching? · What have been your experiences with tracking, both as a student and as a teacher? How do those experiences relate to the article(s) you found on tracking? · Have you noted “push out” or similar effects of standardized testing at your school or in your district? · Who are the stakeholders and what are the assumptions involved in the various positions presented in these articles? Also consider the relationships that different stakeholders have with news outlets and educational organizations. Educational News Sources: Check out Schools Matter: http://schoolsmatter.blogspot.com (especially Peter Campbell’s contributions on the topics) Weekly PEN newsblast http://www.publiceducation.org Education Week http://www.educationweek.org Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org New York Times http://nytimes.com Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com Search Google Scholar http://scholar.google.com/ for articles on tracking ~~~~~~~ Continue to Screen 3 for lesson applications and more resources on the topic. ~~~~~~~ Screen <1> <2> <3> <4> <5>
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Lesson 6 - Issues I: Inequities in Education	
You can access different parts of Lesson 6 by clicking on the links below.	

Lesson 6	Issues In Education I: Inequities in Education  Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment Discussion and Learning Activities Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?  Assessment: Lesson 6 Assignment Lesson References	
Lesson 6 - Issues in Education: Inequities in Education   Educational Inequities  In a summary of the US "Education 2007 at a Glance" report for the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, http://www.oecd.org) Mitchell Weisburgh writes:  The data shows that the US education system substantially favors those who can afford the best schools and who can afford to go to college. Then, the US economy holds the largest rewards for those who have graduated from college, and the biggest penalties for those who do not complete high school, providing few outlets or second chances to cross that gap upon leaving school. Other developed countries appear to be rapidly expanding their university-educated, but without the education spending and income disparities of the US.  (Oct. 3, 2007, PILOTed newsletter, p. 1)  (Full report (available at http://academicbiz.typepad.com/piloted/).  Education is one of the most significant sources of opportunity in a society; however, there are many ways in which these opportunities are denied populations through a lack of educational equity. ''Educational inequity occurs when a group of students does not have access to learning opportunities that are available to other groups of students, and when the quality and standard of education provided to one group is much lower than that provided to other groups of students.'' There are many interrelated causes of educational inequity:  · recruitment of the most effective teachers to higher-paying jobs in more affluent school districts;  · inequitable housing policies that result in residential segregation;  · income gaps that result in school funding inequities when there is heavy reliance on local taxes; and  · a lack of representation for underserved populations (such as the poor, immigrants, and language and racial minorities).  Effective solutions to such problems require a general awareness on the part of the public and the cooperation of many social institutions including community groups, religious organizations, schools, a variety of stakeholders and government. Of course, problems of inequity are complicated when populations of immigrants with limited English language skills are involved. In such cases, problem resolution and adequate representation requires a working knowledge of the target language and culture of the affected population.  In this lesson, you will consider these and other causes of educational inequity and what you can do to minimize their effects in your classroom while maximizing the interpersonal learning opportunities.  Focus Questions · What sort of social and economic situations lead to educational inequities?  · What educational inequities have I experienced and what inequities exist in my school?  · What are the consequences of growing up poor in the U.S.? What are the consequences of growing up poor in my community, my local school district or my city?  · What is social capital? What is meant by "ideology?"  · What communities am I part of or identified with, and what advantages or social capital do I have as a result of my membership in those communities?  · What can I do to minimize the effect of educational inequities in my classroom while maximizing the interpersonal learning opportunities?  Instructions You have several articles to read and web sites to explore for this lesson, and one week to complete them and the lesson assignment. To procede with this lesson, do the following: 1. Read and reflect on the focus questions listed above; 2. Read and consider the Lesson 6 learning objectives below to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson; 3. Save the Lesson 6 assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings and web sites. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:  [yourPID]_edfdns6.doc  4. Read screens 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this online lesson and complete the learning activities;  5. Complete your copy of the assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button, by the date provided on the main assignments screen.  Lesson Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to...  · consider the many causes of educational inequity that impact the opportunities and quality of education for different groups of students;  · understand what is meant by the terms "social capital" and "ideology;" · reflect on any inequities in your school or classroom;  · critically reflect on the readings and website data and prepare a position paper on an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your professional practice, and identify things you can do to minimize the effects of that inequity; · post the conclusions and supporting facts from your position paper to the course discussion board and respond to the conclusions and facts provided by course peers.  Reading Assignment  Read the articles and explore the web sites provided on Screen 2 of this lesson in the section on learning activities.  Prior to doing the readings and web site exploration, download the Lesson 6 assignment worksheet and familiarize yourself with the questions and requirements for the lesson assessment.   Proceed to the next screen to view the lesson content, activities and assignments. 	













 Foundations of Education Lesson 6: Assignment Worksheet	

For the Lesson 6 assignment, you will reflect on the lesson readings and learning activities and write a four- to five-page, double-spaced synopsis paper on some aspect of educational inequity, how it impacts your practice, and what you can do to minimize its effects.  Be sure to substantiate any opinions with citations from the readings or other sources.

State your reflections on one of the topics listed below as concisely as possible, using good grammar and correct spelling.  List your references at the end of the paper.  Use headings. There are 35 total points possible for this paper.  

(30 points) Educational Inequity: Classroom Impact Report
Select one of the possible topics listed below and write a three-part paper covering the following questions:

Part 1: What are the characteristics and repercussions of the educational inequity topic that you chose? (10 points)

Part 2: How does or could that topic impact your personal classroom practice? (10 points)

Part 3: What can you do to minimize the effects of the educational inequity in your classroom, and how can you capitalize on the effects to benefit all your students?  (10 points)

Possible Inequity Topics:
Possible topic choices for your paper follow (note that there are some helpful articles on some of the topics in the “Where Can I Find Out More?” resources section of this lesson on Screen 3):

Segregation in public schools - 45 years after Brown vs. Board of Education, America has again taken up the debate over school segregation.  What are the arguments for and against integration, the problems achieving it, and the methods by which it has been pursued?  What policies promote segregation?  Is integration or segregation desirable?  In what form?

Educational Equity in Special Education - How do special education and school discipline practices affect students from different ethnic backgrounds?  What historical, social or economic conditions account for these effects? What are the implications for students and schools?  What should be done in the future? How is special education affect by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)?  

Minority Languages and Education - Examine the educational implications of African-American Vernacular English (also known as Ebonics or “Black English”) and Spanish - two language forms commonly (though not universally) used by the two largest minority groups in the U.S.  How are linguistic differences accommodated in schools?  Should they be?  What kind of knowledge of other languages and dialects should teachers be required to possess, if any?  Should students whose first languages are not English be taught initially in their native languages or entirely in English?  Should culturally-grounded discourse styles be incorporated into classroom practice? If so, how?  If not, why not?

Gender Issues and Academic Performance - How does academic performance in subjects differ with respect to gender over the K-12 school years?  What are gender-linked patterns of academic performance?  What are the sources of difference in male and female performance in Math, Science, and English, or in the relative proportion of boys and girls given certain special education labels?  What patterns of gender dynamics within classrooms might contribute to these differences in performance?  How?  (Since these patterns change over time, be sure to specify the age at which they manifest themselves.)

School Funding Disparities - At present there are wide disparities in school funding across the U.S.  What are the sources of the disparities?  What forms do they take?  How do school funding disparities affect the educational opportunities of students from different ethnic groups? Should each school be funded equally?  How can education be paid for?  How should minimum levels of funding be determined?

Socio-economic Effects on Achievement - Analyses show a high correlation between students’ family income and their scores on standardized assessments (such as Virginia’s SOL tests).  Consider such questions as:  What factors are involved in the relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and students’ academic performances?  What forms does poverty take and what are the consequences?  Why are people poor?  Why do children from low-income families perform more poorly on school measures (grades, test scores) than affluent children?  Can curriculum standards and state or national tests improve education for students from all social class backgrounds? What are the sources of the movement for standards and tests?  How are such policies justified and defended?  Who promotes them?  What are the criticisms directed against them?  How do standards policies differ across states?

Urban Renewal and Loss of Social Capital - “Upgrading” urban neighborhoods can displace communities and bankrupt their social capital.  In contemplating the pros and cons of urban renewal, think about the forms of social capital that are possessed by individuals and individuals connected to communities, groups, and classes. How do homes, businesses, institutions, organizations, schools, and social networks constitute the social capital of a community? How does this relate to the grave impact of displacement?

Individualism, Social Capital and Immigrant Families - Many scholars believe that collective communal social support has declined through individualistic expectations of self-sufficiency and transient communities. As a result, individuals, families, groups and communities have had to rely solely on the social capital of the individual family unit (Portes, 1998). Therefore it should come as no surprise that the families able to withstand the stress of individualistic expectations of self-sufficiency are those families that already have a large amount of social capital. How might this phenomenon affect migrant or immigrant families? 

Colorblindness as a Racial Ideology - Our constitution is interpreted by many as a “colorblind” document.  Is it truly colorblind?  What are the effects of the ideology referred to as “colorblindness?”  How does non-recognition of race foster subtle racism?  In addition to reading the articles provided in the resources section, you may also want to use Google scholar (http://scholar.google.com/ ) to do a search on terms such as “colorblind ideology” and “colorblind ideology in education.”

2.	(5 points) Paper Mechanics - Five points will be awarded for adhering to specified length (4 to 5 pages, double-spaced), the use of logical and clear writing, proper grammar and correct spelling, and proper APA format for in-text citations and end-of-paper references.

3.	(5 points) Discussion Board Post - You will be asked to make a bulleted summary of the main points for each part of your paper (parts 1, 2 and 3), and then post them to the discussion board. Five (5) points will be awarded for that post and for your replies to two course peers. 

START YOUR PAPER BELOW.  USE HEADINGS TO IDENTIFY EACH SECTION OF YOUR PAPER.


Lesson 6 - Issues in Education: Inequities in Education Screen 2 of 5 <Previous> <Next>   Lesson Discussion Teachers frequently find that their socioeconomic background and experiences are very different from that of the students they teach. This is especially true in urban schools. If the teacher's race is also different from that of his or her students, the challenge of relating to students, motivating them and making learning experiences relevant becomes even greater. Such conditions make it very difficult for teachers to identify and deal constructively with their own preconceptions and expectations in a way that maximizes their students' opportunities to succeed acadmically. If the situation is further complicated by educational inequities of which the teacher is unaware, then he or she may erroneously conclude that the students are either unable or unwilling to learn. Our identities are connected to the communities in which we participate. The traditions, beliefs, values, identities, morals, and histories of various groups and communities are the cultural reference points from which individuals make sense of each other and the world. Individuals, organizations and institutions tend to act out the interests of the communities in which their cultural reference points originate. Therefore, you can expect that as a teacher you will do the same unless you consciously try to consider the interests of your students.  In Lesson 4 you considered the social factors that impact educational quality and availability. In this lesson, you will take a closer look at some of the root causes of educational inequity and how they impact learning and classroom instruction. As you complete the readings and learning activities for this lesson, you should select one of the topics related to educational inequity and collect information and statistics to write a four-to-five page, double-spaced position paper on that topic and how it impacts (or should impact) your professional practice. (To review some of the options for your paper, refer to the assignment details on the Lesson 6 Assignment Worksheet for this lesson.)  In America today, educational inequity persists along socioeconomic, racial and cultural lines. To illustrate, the National Center for Education Statistics reports that by the age of 9, children in low-income communities are an average of three grade levels behind their more affluent peers. Half of these children will not graduate from high school, and those who do graduate tend to read and do math on par with eighth graders in high-income communities. These disparities severely limit the life prospects of the 13 million children growing up in poverty today. Children growing up in low-income areas are seven times less likely to graduate from college than children from higher-income communities. Race and ethnicity also enters the picture, because African-American and Latino/Hispanic children are three times as likely to grow up in a low-income area, thus further limiting their opportunities in life. (2007, from http://www.teachforamerica.com/mission/index.htm ) Social Capital Social capital is the advantage created by a person's relationships, group memberships, and social networks (Bourdieu, 1986; Portes, 1998).  Through social capital, some people gain access and success in a particular setting through their superior connections to other people.  By virtue of the social networks to which an individual belongs, he or she acquires social capital.  We acquire social values, beliefs, perspectives, and cultural reference points through participation in the practices of the social networks (families, groups, communities, regions, and histories) in which we are born, live, and work.  In this lesson, we explore social capital as a possession and capacity of long-standing communities and groups and its impact on education. Usually when we hear the term "capital," we think in terms of individual economic advantage. The learning activities for this lesson invite you to consider how the collective capacities of long-standing social groups, communities, and classes enables them to ensure their interests, to negotiate and to solve problems. It is important to note that long standing groups’ collective capacities are developed in relation to other groups’ collective capacity, and in many cases at the expense of those groups - permanently crippling their ability to accumulate the collective capital necessary for their community to negotiate and ensure their interest. For example, middle to upper middle class parents may use their social network and power to ensure, negotiate, and rationalize school advantages for their children. Consider these questions: · How do some communities, groups and classes call upon social capital, activating social power to ensure their interests? Alternatively, how are some communities, groups and classes vulnerable due to a lack of social capital to ensure their interests?  · How does social capital affect school funding and the sources of school funding?  · How does school funding relate to educational equity?  · In what ways is the United States unique in how schools are funded and disparities between school funding as compared to other industrialized nations?  Collective assets and social support are part of the social capital created by long-standing communities.  “Upgrading” neighborhoods through urban renewal often displaces long-time lower income residents to make room for higher income residents who can pay the increased rents.  Because of this phenomenon, communities with little social capital but a great deal of support in their social network can lose their communal social capital as a result of the displacement and disruption of urban renewal.  Ideology The following excerpt is from Lye, J. (1997). “Ideology: class resource.” Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, Brok University, Ontario, Canada. Accessed at http://www.brocku.ca/english/jlye/ideology.html  Ideology is a term used to refer to how cultures are structured to enable the group holding power to have the maximum control with the minimum of conflict. This is not a matter of groups deliberately planning to oppress people or alter their consciousness (although this can happen), but rather a reflection of how the dominant institutions in society work through values, conceptions of the world, and symbol systems, in order to legitimize the current order. Briefly, this legitimization is managed through the widespread teaching (the social adoption) of ideas about the way things are, how the world 'really' works and should work. These ideas (often embedded in symbols and cultural practices) orient people's thinking in such a way that they accept the current way of doing things, the current sense of what is 'natural,' and the current understanding of their roles in society. This socialization process, the shaping of our cognitive and affective interpretations of our social world, is carried out by churches, schools, the family, and through cultural forms (such as literature, rock music, advertising, sitcoms, etc.).  ...For example, we assume that democracy is the political system best suited to the nature and aspirations of humans, we see history as a movement towards democracy, [and] we assume that once all nations have achieved democracy they will continue to be democracies forever, unless they erode. These assumptions are ideology.  The article by Tarca (2005) in the following learning activities will provide you with an example of how ideologies can "muddy" the topic of educational inequities and make it harder to recognize and deal with them. As you read, consider the following questions: · What is the basis that you use to make sense of a student’s academic performance?   · What are your assumptions concerning your students' abilities, motivation, talent, intentions, the communities they come from, and the involvement of their parent(s) or guardian(s) in their schooling?  · How may your cultural reference points play out in your teaching and assessment?  One Cause of Inequity: Residential Segregation  Although our nation's school systems are no longer physically segregated, inequalities still exist which have been created by poverty's continuous assault on neurological integrity and development and the barriers it creates to academic achievement. -Rochelle Mozlin, Associate Clinical Professor of Optometry, State U. of NY Rather than segregated schools, the problem is often residential segregation. Residential segregation is “the degree to which two or more groups live separately from one another” (Massey and Denton, 1988). Frequently, residential segregation results when schools are funded from tax revenues at the local level, so if the neighborhood is rich, a given school in the neighborhood will likely have everything it needs. However, if the neighborhood is poor, it is likely that the teachers will be paying for the students' pencils out of their own pocket. In 86% of states, school districts with the largest numbers of poor children have less money to spend per pupil than districts with the fewest poor children. In addition, there is a large gap between the resources available to districts with a majority of students of color and districts with a student population a majority of white students. For example, in 2000, the median assets for a white household were $79,400, for African American households this was $7,500 (a disparity of 900%). Thus, for every $1 in assets held by the average African American family, the average white family has $9 in assets, which open doors to more educational and life style opportunities. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau)  Residential segregation is frequently caused by one or more factors, including housing costs, discrimination, and/or the choices of residents who are more comfortable living near those who are like themselves. But even if individual choice is the main reason for a homogeneous neighborhood, segregation is more than just the physical isolation of people, segregation is isolation from opportunity and opportunity structures. The problem is multi-faceted and there are no simple solutions. Consider that:  1. Families who have access to affordable housing have more money to spend on transportation. 2. More money to spend on transportation enables adults in such families to consider a broader range of better-paying jobs. 3. A better job provides more money, which enables parents to provide their children with good food, more stable housing and better educational opportunities.  4. Well-fed children with stable housing tend to do better in school.  5. Having access to greater educational opportunities and doing better in school allows these children to achieve regular employment.  To reverse the problems associated with residential segregation and educational quality, some suggest that communities must:  · provide affordable housing that is deliberately located within high performing school districts;  · implement strategies for sustaining employment in the region;  · provide the necessary transportation infrastructure and childcare to enable low-income parents to get and keep good jobs; and  · establish institutions that facilitate civic and political activity to give underserved populations a voice in educational policy.  One possible solution being implemented in communities is "regionalism." Regionalism recognizes that the economy, infrastructure (transportation, utilities, etc.) and the labor market function on a regional level (for example, encompassing a city and its suburbs). Proponents of regionalism therefore emphasize that resources should be administered at a regional - rather than a city or federal - level.  But What Can A Teacher Do?  The societal problems that produce educational inequities are so complex that you might be tempted to give up any hope of being able to help. However, for the learning activities for this lesson you will be asked to consider the successes of Teach for American, a non-profit organization that recruits top college graduates to work in the neediest school districts across the U.S. Wendy Kopp, founder of Teach for America, argues that there is much that the individual teacher can do. She agrees that giving underprivileged and underperforming students the same resources as those provided to privileged students is a start, but she stresses that teachers and administrators must also: · put in the extra time required to change students' attitudes about their own capability for achieving success;  · establish and communicate high expectations for the achievement of all students;  · push students to fulfill their highest potential;  · recruit teachers from a variety of disciplines, not just those with degrees in education;  · provide teachers with the practical support they need and pay them well.  In addition, the individual teacher can take advantage of opportunities to minimize situations and factors that work against positive growth and should capitalize on other opportunities to enhance social-emotional learning. Opportunities for growth present themselves through both positive and negative encounters that occur inside and outside your classroom, including:  · cooperative learning experiences  · peer sharing and tutoring  · when addressing interpersonal and learning problems  · incidents of bullying  · service learning opportunities in the community  · engaging students in strategies to enhance a caring, supportive, and safe school climate  · attitude and skill development during conflict resolution and crisis prevention efforts  · mentoring students in personal and social development when dealing with stressors such as:  o increasingly difficult homework,  o interpersonal conflicts,  o testing and grading pressures,  o special events associated with holidays, social activities and sports,  o grade promotions and graduation.  You should attempt to minimize such stressors and enhance students' ability to cope through social-emotional learning and shared problem solving. There are other things you can do, as well. As you contemplate this, consider the following questions: · How can teachers, administrators, and community members support communities that are underrepresented in local school decision-making processes that affect their children?  · In your community or school, what kinds of institutional actions have you seen taken in response to demographic changes in student populations?  · How have you seen the interests, worldviews or values of specific groups, organizations, or communities influence or shape schooling practices in your community?  · How can communities participate in the decision-making process for public school policies and programs?  For the Lesson 6 assignment, you will be asked to research an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your professional practice, and identify things you can do to minimize the effects of that inequity in your classroom. The learning activities for this lesson should help you gather information for this assignment. Take a moment now, before tackling the learning activities, to review your options for the Lesson 6 paper.  Learning Activities:  As you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.   Reading & Reflection Assignment  Complete the following activities & save your work for the Lesson 6 assignment.  1. Poverty's Effect on Potential - Read the Executive Summary and scan the rest of the following report, "Achievement Trap: How America is Failing Millions of High-Achieving Students from Lower-Income Families." This report was completed by Civic Enterprises LLC, a Washington-based research and public-policy group, and the Lansdowne, Virginia-based Jack Kent Cooke Foundation. The authors analyzed national data to track the school performance of about 3.4 million K-12 children who came from households with incomes below the national median but who scored in the top quartile on nationally normed tests. The study found that lower income, high-achieving students start school with weaker academic skills and are less likely to flourish over the years in school than their peers from economically better-off families. Note that the study recommendations are limited and the authors don't mention some other possible solutions to the problem, such as equitable distribution of highly skilled teachers, and access to quality preschools. Research the sponsoring foundations. Do they appear to be un-biased or do they seem to have an agenda? What conclusions do you draw from the information in the report? Cite references to support your opinions. Save your answers for the Lesson 6 assignment.   Wyner, Bridgeland & Diiulio (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from lower-income families.  2. Topics on Inequity - Read following articles on inequities in schooling:  Ideologies and Inequity - Tarca (2005). Colorblind in control: The risks of resisting difference amid demographic change. Educational Studies, 38(2), 99-119. Click here to access the article.   Racial Inequity in Special Education - Losen, D. & Orfield, G. (Eds.) (2002). The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.  Harvard Educational Press. Click here to access the article.  School Funding - Books, S. (1998). School Funding: tinkering with equity in times of ghettoization. In Educational Foundation. Click here to access the article.   3. Poverty & Housing - Poverty is a characteristic of all the possible topics listed for your Lesson 6 assignment. In this activity you will look up several references to explore some of the consequences of poverty in YOUR area. (Note: for this activity and for all web site searches in general, be sure to consider the authority and objectivity of the website sponsor.)  Questions to consider as you do this activity: o What is the cost of housing in your area, how are areas zoned, and what are the busing routes?  o How economically and racially diverse are the schools?  o What are the social supports available for poorer families?  o If your area is not very economically diverse, why do you think that is the case?  o In your area, which schools are well funded, where do qualified teachers tend to work, how are ESL and non-white students linguistically and cultural supported, how are these students tracked, which schools and students are provided with rich college preparatory programs, and which students and schools are provided with basic health and safety safeguards?  a. Look up the Virginia county-level rates for children in poverty for 2004:  http://ers.usda.gov/Data/PovertyRates/PovListpct.asp?ST=VA&view=Percent   Virginia Tech University is located in Montgomery County, which has a poverty rate of 14.3% for children. In some counties, the rate for all people in poverty is higher than the rate for children in poverty, and in some counties it is just the reverse. Which county poverty rates do you think are important to note? What's the poverty rate in your school's county?  b. Consider also the information available at the following websites related to poverty:  America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being 2005, Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics http://www.childstats.gov/pubs.asp   Basic Facts About Low-Income Children in the United States, National Center for Children in Poverty http://nccp.org/publications/pub_762.html  Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality http://www.ahrq.gov/  Children & Asthma in America http://www.asthmainamerica.com CDC [lead] http://www.cdc.gov Sub-clinical Lead Toxicity in U.S. Children  http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/281/5383/1617  EPA [environmental measures, contaminants, body burdens, illness] http://www.epa.gov  Challenges specific to mothers Job discrimination against single working mothers http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060522/blades/4 4. Newsweek magazine does a yearly rating of high schools in America. Their Best High Schools List uses a ratio, the number of Advanced Placement (AP) and/or International Baccalaureate (IB) tests taken by all students at a school in 2006, divided by the number of graduating seniors. This rating doesn't reflect the whole story about schools, but it compares a wide range of students' readiness for higher-level work (e.g., college). Check out the rating here:   http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/site/newsweek/  For 2007, Blacksburg High School in Blacksburg (home of Virginia Tech) was rated as 330th in the nation. Is the high school you attended on the list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation? If you teach high school, is the school where you teach on the list? (Note that you can enter the abbreviation for your state and list all the high schools in your state that are on the list.)  Now compare the Virginia child poverty rates you recorded from item #3.a. above, to the listing of top schools for 2005 (the closest year to the poverty statistics for Virginia; use the tab at the top of the chart to access the 2005 statistics). Clearly, more than poverty rates affect the quality of schooling. For example, note the poverty rate for Montgomery County and then consider that while Blacksburg High School is 264th on the 2005 list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation, Christiansburg High School (which is also in Montgomery County), is not even on the list. Can you draw any conclusions from your observations? Save them for the Lesson 6 assignment.  5. For the Lesson 6 assignment, you are to select an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your teaching practice. Please note that there are a number of web sites and helpful articles provided on Screen 3 of this lesson in the section entitled, "Where can I find out more?" that you may want to use to obtain data on the demographics and educational opportunities of America's students.    ~~~~~~~ Continue to Screen 3 for lesson applications and more resources on the topic.  ~~~~~~~ Screen <1> <2> <3> <4> <5>  	
 	
1.	Topics on Inequity - Read the following articles on inequities in schooling: 
Ideologies and Inequity - Tarca (2005). Colorblind in control: The risks of resisting difference amid demographic change. Educational Studies, 38(2), 99-119. Click here to access the article. 

Racial Inequity in Special Education - Losen, D. & Orfield, G. (Eds.) (2002). The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.  Harvard Educational Press. Click here to access the article. 
School Funding - Books, S. (1998). School Funding: tinkering with equity in times of ghettoization. In Educational Foundation. Click here to access the article.  
2.	Poverty & Housing - Poverty is a characteristic of all the possible topics listed for your Lesson 6 assignment. In this activity you will look up several references to explore some of the consequences of poverty in YOUR area. (Note: for this activity and for all web site searches in general, be sure to consider the authority and objectivity of the website sponsor.) 

Questions to consider as you do this activity:
o	What is the cost of housing in your area, how are areas zoned, and what are the busing routes? 
o	How economically and racially diverse are the schools? 
o	What are the social supports available for poorer families? 
o	If your area is not very economically diverse, why do you think that is the case? 
o	In your area, which schools are well funded, where do qualified teachers tend to work, how are ESL and non-white students linguistically and cultural supported, how are these students tracked, which schools and students are provided with rich college preparatory programs, and which students and schools are provided with basic health and safety safeguards? 
a.	Look up the Virginia county-level rates for children in poverty for 2004:

http://ers.usda.gov/Data/PovertyRates/PovListpct.asp?ST=VA&view=Percent 

Virginia Tech University is located in Montgomery County, which has a poverty rate of 14.3% for children. In some counties, the rate for all people in poverty is higher than the rate for children in poverty, and in some counties it is just the reverse. Which county poverty rates do you think are important to note? What's the poverty rate in your school's county? 
b.	Consider also the information available at the following websites related to poverty: 
America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being 2005, Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics
http://www.childstats.gov/pubs.asp 

Basic Facts About Low-Income Children in the United States, National Center for Children in Poverty
http://nccp.org/publications/pub_762.html 
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
http://www.ahrq.gov/ 
Children & Asthma in America
http://www.asthmainamerica.com
CDC [lead]
http://www.cdc.gov
Sub-clinical Lead Toxicity in U.S. Children 
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/281/5383/1617 
EPA [environmental measures, contaminants, body burdens, illness]
http://www.epa.gov 
Challenges specific to mothers
Job discrimination against single working mothers
http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060522/blades/4
4.	Newsweek magazine does a yearly rating of high schools in America. Their Best High Schools List uses a ratio, the number of Advanced Placement (AP) and/or International Baccalaureate (IB) tests taken by all students at a school in 2006, divided by the number of graduating seniors. This rating doesn't reflect the whole story about schools, but it compares a wide range of students' readiness for higher-level work (e.g., college). Check out the rating here: 

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/site/newsweek/

For 2007, Blacksburg High School in Blacksburg (home of Virginia Tech) was rated as 330th in the nation. Is the high school you attended on the list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation? If you teach high school, is the school where you teach on the list? (Note that you can enter the abbreviation for your state and list all the high schools in your state that are on the list.)

Now compare the Virginia child poverty rates you recorded from item #3.a. above, to the listing of top schools for 2005 (the closest year to the poverty statistics for Virginia; use the tab at the top of the chart to access the 2005 statistics). Clearly, more than poverty rates affect the quality of schooling. For example, note the poverty rate for Montgomery County and then consider that while Blacksburg High School is 264th on the 2005 list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation, Christiansburg High School (which is also in Montgomery County), is not even on the list. Can you draw any conclusions from your observations? Save them for the Lesson 6 assignment. 
5.	For the Lesson 6 assignment, you are to select an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your teaching practice. Please note that there are a number of web sites and helpful articles provided on Screen 3 of this lesson in the section entitled, "Where can I find out more?" that you may want to use to obtain data on the demographics and educational opportunities of America's students. 
Lesson 6 Assessment: 
For this lesson assignment you will reflect on the readings and learning activities to complete a four- to five-page, double-spaced paper on your choice of an aspect of educational inequity and how it impacts or should impact your practice. You will also make a bulleted list of the main points of your paper, post it to the discussion board, and reply to the lists of two of your course peers. Specifically, you will: 
1.	Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 6 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns6.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns6.doc). You are to write your paper in the worksheet document, following the instructions which provide choices of topics and details on the content of the paper. Use the rubric provided below to guide your efforts and be sure to check your paper for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure. In addition, be sure to substantiate any statements you make with citations from the readings or from other sources you located. Include complete references at the end of your paper. 
2.	Submit Assignment Worksheet Paper for Grade - Your synopsis paper should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 6 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. HOWEVER, note that in order to make your bulleted list to post by Thursday night (item #3 below), you will need your paper in close-to-final form earlier in the week. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name:
[yourPID]_edfdns6.doc
3.	Discussion Board Assignment #3 - For your third course discussion board assignment, you are to make a bulleted list for each of the three sections of your paper: (a) characteristics and repercussions of the educational inequity topic chosen, (b) how that topic impacts your personal classroom practice, and (c) what you can do to minimize the effects of the inequity and capitalize on it for the benefit of your all your students. Include your bulleted lists in the body of a post by Thursday midnight of the week your assignments are due for Lesson 6 (see due dates for assignments by using the Blackboard "Assignments" button). 

Reply to the lists posted by at least two of your course peers by Saturday midnight of the week assignments are due for Lesson 6. 
Expectations: (40 total points possible) Your synopsis paper will be graded according to the following rubric:
Synopsis Paper Criteria	Points Possible	Standard for Full Credit	
Characteristics & Impacts of the Educational Inequity 	10	For one of the topics listed on the assignment worksheet, provided a thorough discussion of the characteristics, possible causes and impacts of the educational inequity. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites. 	
How Inequity Impacts Personal Classroom Practice	10	For the educational inequity chosen, provided a description of how it impacts or should impact participant's personal classroom practice. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites. 	
Ways to Minimize Impact & Capitalize For Benefit of All Students	10	For the educational inequity chosen, provided a thoughtful list of how the participant could minimize the effects of the educational inequity in their classroom, and capitalize on opportunities presented to benefit all participant's students. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites. 	
Writing mechanics 	5	Paper is four-to-five double-spaced pages long (1 point), writing is logical and clear (1), and uses proper grammar and correct spelling (1), uses proper APA format for in-text citations (1) and end-of-paper references (1).	
Discussion Board Posts & Replies 	5	Posted bulleted lists for each section of paper to the course discussion board by Thursday midnight & provided substantive and respectful replies to at least two peer postings by Saturday midnight. 	
Total Points Awarded/ Total Points Possible	/40	Comments:	
~~~ Continue to Screen 5 to access the Lesson 6 references. ~~~ 
Our nation's greatest injustice
Our theory of change
In America today, educational inequity persists along socioeconomic and racial lines.
Nine-year-olds growing up in low-income communities are already three grade levels behind their peers in high-income communities.
Half of them won't graduate from high school by the time they're 18.
Those who do graduate will, on average, read and do math at the level of eighth graders in high-income communities1. Only 1 in 10 will graduate from college. 
These disparities severely limit the life prospects of the 13 million children growing up in poverty today. And, because African-American and Latino/Hispanic children are three times as likely to grow up in a low-income area2, these disparities also prevent many children of color from truly having equal opportunities in life.
But it doesn't have to be this way. While the problem is daunting, we see evidence every day in classrooms across the country that when students in low-income communities are given the educational opportunities they deserve, they excel.
It is this - the clear potential of students - that makes the disparities in educational outcomes so unconscionable and fuels our sense of urgency and responsibility to do everything we can to ensure educational opportunity for all.
Read more about Teach For America's commitment to diversity.
Hear corps members and alumni talk about their personal views on this issue.



Lesson 6 - Issues in Education: Inequities in Education   Lesson 6 References: Books, S. (Fall, 1998). School funding: Tinkering with equity in times of ghettoization. Educational Foundations, 53-68.  Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson, (Ed.) Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education. New York: Greenwood Press. Gotanda, N. (1991). A critique of “our constitution is color-blind”. Stanford Law Review, 44(1), 1-68. Harry, B., & Klingner, J. (2006). “Overview: ethnic disproportionality in special education,” and “School structure: Institutional bias and individual agency.” In Why are so many minority students in Special Education?  New York: Teachers College Press. Losen, D.J., & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education. Harvard Education Press.  Lye, J. (1997). “Ideology: Class resource.” Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, Brock University, Ontario, Canada. Accessed at http://www.brocku.ca/english/jlye/ideology.html  Massey, D.S. and N.A. Denton (1988). The dimensions of residential segregation. Social Forces, 67, 281-315. Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.  Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1-24. Rose, M. (1989). Lives on the Boundary. New York: Penguin Books. Tarca, K. (2005). Colorblind in control: The risks of resisting difference amid demographic change.  Educational Studies, 38(2), 99-119.  Wyner, J.S., Bridgeland, J.M., & Diiulio, J.J. (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from lower-income families. Washington, D.C.: Civic Enterprises, LLC. Lansdowne, VA: Jack Kent Cooke Foundation. 	


You can access different parts of Lesson 7 by clicking on the links below.	

Lesson 7 Issues II: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"  Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment Discussion and Learning Activities Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?  Assessment: Lesson 7 Assignment Lesson References	
Lesson 7 - Issues: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"    Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability" Mike Rose, the author of the book Lives on the Boundary (1989), presents an atypical view of knowledge and its role in education: There is a strong impulse in American education - curious in a country with such an ornery streak of anti-traditionalism - to define achievement and excellence in terms of the acquisition of a historically validated body of knowledge, an authoritative list of books and allusions, a canon. We seek a certification of our national intelligence, indeed, our national virtue, in how diligently our children can display this central corpus of information (p. 233). In this lesson you will consider how educators and educational systems tend to determine the nature of the knowledge children are to obtain through schooling, and how many aspects of American schooling are tied to this accepted “knowledge canon.” Frequently, ability classifications, rich curriculum, and tracking are designed to align with that knowledge canon and therefore tend to favor children from the communities who can display that knowledge.  The accepted knowledge canon also impacts the design of tests that are used to determine a student’s success or failure and to hold schools accountable for educating students.   What is the nature of the instruction and assessments used by teachers to determine academic success and placement?  Are they truly valid, neutral and sufficient? Focus Questions · What is knowledge?  · Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge?   · How do our beliefs about knowledge form our assumptions about success and failure in school?  · What is tracking and how does it impact my classroom practice?  · Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance?  · Does tracking create different students and performances?  · What role do students’ perceptions of themselves and their capabilities (their identity) have in influencing their academic performance?  · What do grades and GPA (Grade Point Average) indicate about students?  · How do assumptions about the nature of academic success impact teacher beliefs about student ‘abilities?’  How do these beliefs impact teacher views of placement exams, curriculum, and tests?  Instructions You have several articles to read and web sites to explore for this lesson and one week to complete the readings and assignment. To procede with this lesson, do the following: 1. Read and reflect on the focus questions above. 2. Read and consider the Lesson 7 learning objectives below to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson; 3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop (link provided below) and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:  [yourPID]_edfdns7.doc  4. Read screens 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this online lesson;  5. Complete the lesson readings and learning activities; 6. Complete your assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen.  Lesson Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to...  · articulate and defend your opinion on the impact of social class on the availability of choices and opportunities in education;  · understand the meaning and use of the terms AYP, high stakes testing, tracking and de-tracking;  · critically reflect on the readings and learning activities and develop a paper on some aspect of educational measurement, tracking, and/or accountability.   Reading Assignment · Use the links on the following screens to access the article and web site readings for this lesson.   	
Lesson 7 - Issues: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"    Lesson Discussion To enter the dialogue concerning educational testing and measurement, there are several terms with which you should be familiar.   What standards are used for instruction? In Virginia, the standards to which instruction is aligned (matched) are the Standards of Learning (commonly referred to as “SOLs”).  The SOLs are the minimum curriculum requirements for student achievement in the state curriculum.  They were developed by the Virginia Department of Education to establish standards of learning for kindergarten through the 12th grade in four academic areas: English (including reading and writing), math, science, and history and social science (history, geography, civics, and economics).  They also incorporate learning standards for computer technology.  Students are tested in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, and 11th grades and must pass a minimum number of high school SOL tests in order to receive a diploma.  Note that each state has its own standards, for example, Texas has TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills), and West Virginia has the WESTEST (West Virginia Educational Standards Test).      What is Adequate Yearly Progress? Adequate Yearly Progress. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires schools, school divisions, and states to meet annual objectives or AYP targets for student performance on statewide tests.  There are 29 targets, or benchmarks, that have been identified for AYP. These benchmarks are measures of progress toward the goals established for student participation and performance on statewide tests in reading and mathematics, and they are defined for seven subgroups of students: · all students,  · students who are limited English proficient (LEP),  · students with disabilities,  · three state-defined ethnic populations: for Virginia these are Black, Hispanic and White, and  · economically disadvantaged students (defined as those eligible to receive free and reduced-price lunches)  In addition, AYP dictates that school divisions and states must make progress towards meeting annual objectives for attendance in elementary and middle schools, and toward numbers of graduates in high schools.   According to the requirements of NCLB, if a school misses a single benchmark in just one subgroup, the school does not make AYP (except for uncontrollable circumstances).  This holds true for school divisions as well.   If a school or school division fails to meet AYP for three consecutive years, schools may receive corrective action by the state, or may eventually lose their federal funding.  As a result, this external accountability puts increasing pressure on administrators and teachers to consider the benchmarks and subpopulations in their schools as they plan curriculum and methodology. Teachers can no longer simply look at general student performance to plan instruction. They must also look at subgroups within their classroom to ensure not one child is 'left behind' when state tests are administered.   AYP is a complicated issue, and has attracted much criticism as well as admiration for the authors of NCLB. To discern whether the law needs adjustment, consider the state of education prior to NCLB to determine whether improvements in student achievement have been realized, then consider the educational goals for the future. For instance, in its present form, NCLB says 100% of U.S. schools will be able to meet AYP in reading and mathematics by 2014.  Is that a realistic goal?  Each teacher has his or her own opinion of NCLB and AYP.  What do you think? Have you seen evidence in your school of how AYP drives instruction? (See also http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/src/understandingayp.shtml)     What is “high-stakes testing?”   High-stakes testing is a method developed to implement standards and ensure accountability of schools.  It refers to the use of standardized tests as criteria to determine the promotion of children to the next grade, high school graduation, teacher bonuses, and the governance and quality of schools.  The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 expands the role of such tests by legislating their incorporation into states' school accountability programs.  While such testing has focused attention on desirable standards of knowledge and achievement, there have been many controversial by-products of the movement.  Some of the negative consequences of high-stakes testing for schools and students include such issues as: · The impact of standardized testing on student drop-out, discharge and push out rates, and on dis-enrollment of students;  · Problems with transferring to new schools, cheating on standardized tests, problems with grading standardized tests, GED program enrollment increases and demographic changes;  · The varying impact of testing on different schools, communities and families, including the unique challenges for poorer schools and students, and the impact of heavier sanctions for Title I schools.  Critics claim that high stakes tests tend to drive the curriculum, limit instructional innovation, and keep educators from establishing their own priorities and visions.  They also caution that no single measure is comprehensive enough to tell us everything we need to know about schools, students and schooling experience. Claiming that high stakes-testing as a single measure has affected more than how we see schooling, they warn that it is now affecting the day-to-day practices of teachers and schooling, creating a testing culture in public schools. Many scholars are concerned that this testing culture has fundamentally changed the relationship between schools and students. One concern is that the consequences and sanctions against schools that do poorly on high stakes tests (which involve harsher penalties for Title I schools), has created a climate where school administrators feel the need to protect and recruit students who do well on testing.  The readings in this lesson will help you decide what you think about the issue. What is the “the nation’s report card”? The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, also known as “The Nation’s Report Card”) is a periodic assessment of what America’s students know and can do in the areas of mathematics, reading, science, writing, the arts, civics, economics, geography and U.S. history.  The NAEP has three levels of achievement (Basic, Proficient, and Advanced) that indicate what students should know and be able to do at each grade assessed for each subject assessed by NAEP.  By law, the Commissioner of Education Statistics at the U.S. Department of Education is responsible for carrying out the NAEP project.  The National Assessment Governing Board, a bipartisan group, sets policy for NAEP and is responsible for developing the framework and test specifications that serve as the blueprint for the assessments.  Board members include governors, state legislators, local and state school officials, educators, business representatives, and members of the general public.  For more, visit the NAEP site at http://nationsreportcard.gov  or http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/    What is tracking?   Tracking is the practice, now in use for a century or more, of categorizing students into distinct groups according to certain measures of intelligence for purposes of teaching and learning.  Often, this involves grouping students in “fast” and “slow” or “remedial” and “advanced” groups.  Thus classified, students are then provided with curriculum and instruction that supposedly suits their abilities and potential future.  Critics say that this practice often leads to racial and socioeconomic segregation within schools, and that being placed in the low track often ahs long-lasting negative effects on such students.  The learning activities for this lesson will prompt you to read more on tracking and the alternative of “un-tracking” or “de-tracking.”  Read the article by Anne Wheelock (1992) “Crossing the tracks: How ‘untracking’ can save America’s schools.  The article is available at: http://www.middleweb.com/Whlcktrack.html  or by using this course link.   Bias in Educational Measures This lesson looks a little closer at the tools teachers use, and how they are assumed to be neutral when used for placement, testing and assessment.  Mike Rose, author of Lives on the Boundary (1989), challenges assumptions about student error (failed performance), questioning what teachers and assessors commonly think these failures indicate, and how concepts of student failure inform teaching and assessment practices: Through all my experiences with people struggling to learn, the one thing that strikes me most is the ease with which we misperceive failed performance and the degree to which this misperception both reflects and reinforces the social order (p. 205). When teachers make sense of a student’s failed or successful performances, what do they assume about the student? What assumptions do teachers make about the validity of placement exams, curriculum, and assessment? How do these assumptions impact teaching and learning?  Complete the following learning activities to find out more. NOTE: For the Lesson 7 assignment, you will be asked to write a paper on some aspect of educational measurement, tracking and/or accountability. The learning activities for this lesson should help you gather information for this assignment. Take a moment now, before tackling the learning activities, to review your topic options for the Lesson 7 paper.  Learning Activities:  The following learning activities involve a large amount of reading or scanning.  It is important that you familiarize yourself with all the issues involved, so please at least scan all the resources listed.  However, to help guide the depth with which you read or scan, you may wish to first access the Lesson 7 assignment worksheet to review the possible topics for your paper.  Reading & Reflection Assignment Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment.  1. Viewing Assignment - View the 55-minute video on testing in American schools entitled "Testing Our Schools" (2003) produced by the Merrow Report and available at the Annenberg Foundation website (scroll down to #49, “Testing Our Schools”):   http://www.learner.org/resources/series99.html?pop=yes&vodid=388801&pid=1098#  As you view the video, take note of the pros and cons concerning the testing currently used in our educational systems, and record your thoughts to add to your Lesson 7 assignment. 2. Reading Assignment - Read or scan the following articles on testing, push out, and tracking, and record your thoughts on them for the Lesson 7 assignment:  a. Kornhaber, M. (2004). Appropriate and inappropriate forms of testing, assessment and accountability. Educational Policy, 18(1), 45-70. (25 pages)   As you read, think about:    How do we as teachers tend to think about students error?   Do we tend to think of error in a technical content, such as task analysis, or do we think of error in a social context? Why might this difference between technical and social matter?  b. Orel, S. (2002). 522 students pushed out of school...    This article provides an overview of the problem of “push-out.”  As you read, think about:  · How schools might protect and ensure positive testing student populations and how this relates to issues of equity in education.  · Standardized testing and its impact on student drop-out, discharge, and push out rates, and dis-enrollment of students.   · Related issues such as transferring to new schools, cheating on standardized tests, problems with grading standardized tests, demographic changes and GED program enrollment increases, and the effect of high-stakes testing on drop out rates.  · How these issues affect schools, communities and families from different socio-economic backgrounds?  · How do these issues relate to merit pay for teachers based on standardized test scores?  c. Freedle, R.O. (2003). Correcting the SAT’s ethnic and social-class bias: A method for re-estimating SAT scores. Harvard Educational Review, 73(1).   d. Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2002). High stakes testing, uncertainly, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archive, 10(18).   (This article is quite long, so read through page 17 and the conclusion, and then scan the rest of the article for information that relates to the topic you chose to write about for the Lesson 7 assignment.) 3. Web Exploration - Dr. Linda Orozco  of California State University, Fullerton, offers a good introduction to some of the literature and positions on tracking in education.  Read the following introduction and record your thoughts on Dr. Orozco’s “questions to consider,” saving them for the Lesson 7 assignment:  http://hdcs.fullerton.edu/faculty/orozco/lecturetracking.html In addition, scan the two following articles for an update and different perspective on the issue of tracking:  Hallinan, M. (2004). University of Notre Dame. “The Detracking Movement” at Education Next, at: http://www.educationnext.org/20044/72.html  Wells & Serna (1996). The politics of culture: understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), pp 93-116 (23 pages).  As you read/scan, think about: · Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge?  · How do our assumptions about knowledge affect how we make sense of failure?  · Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance?  · Does tracking create different students and performances?  4. Current Status of These Issues - Read the following questions and then use the web links below to search for and find at least three (3) current (written in the last three years) education stories, special reports, and issues in the educational news sources that discuss testing, tracking and “de-tracking” (also called “un-tracking”), and push out (at least one article on each topic).  Briefly write up your answers to the questions and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment.  · How does standardized testing favorably and/or unfavorably impact your students and teaching?  · What have been your experiences with tracking, both as a student and as a teacher? How do those experiences relate to the article(s) you found on tracking?  · Have you noted “push out” or similar effects of standardized testing at your school or in your district?  · Who are the stakeholders and what are the assumptions involved in the various positions presented in these articles?  Also consider the relationships that different stakeholders have with news outlets and educational organizations.  Educational News Sources: Check out Schools Matter: http://schoolsmatter.blogspot.com   (especially Peter Campbell’s contributions on the topics)  Weekly PEN newsblast http://www.publiceducation.org   Education Week http://www.educationweek.org   Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org   New York Times http://nytimes.com   Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com   Search Google Scholar  http://scholar.google.com/  for articles on tracking   ~~~~~~~ Continue to Screen 3 for lesson applications and more resources on the topic.  ~~~~~~~ Screen <1> <2> <3> <4> <5>  	
From:  Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2002). High stakes testing, uncertainly, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archive, 10(18).   	
3.	Web Exploration - Dr. Linda Orozco  of California State University, Fullerton, offers a good introduction to some of the literature and positions on tracking in education.  Read the following introduction and record your thoughts on Dr. Orozco’s “questions to consider,” saving them for the Lesson 7 assignment: 
http://hdcs.fullerton.edu/faculty/orozco/lecturetracking.html
In addition, scan the two following articles for an update and different perspective on the issue of tracking:

Hallinan, M. (2004). University of Notre Dame. “The Detracking Movement” at Education Next, at: http://www.educationnext.org/20044/72.html 
Wells & Serna (1996). The politics of culture: understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), pp 93-116 (23 pages). 
As you read/scan, think about:
·	Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge? 
·	How do our assumptions about knowledge affect how we make sense of failure? 
·	Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance? 
·	Does tracking create different students and performances? 
4.	Current Status of These Issues - Read the following questions and then use the web links below to search for and find at least three (3) current (written in the last three years) education stories, special reports, and issues in the educational news sources that discuss testing, tracking and “de-tracking” (also called “un-tracking”), and push out (at least one article on each topic).  Briefly write up your answers to the questions and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment. 
·	How does standardized testing favorably and/or unfavorably impact your students and teaching? 
·	What have been your experiences with tracking, both as a student and as a teacher? How do those experiences relate to the article(s) you found on tracking? 
·	Have you noted “push out” or similar effects of standardized testing at your school or in your district? 
·	Who are the stakeholders and what are the assumptions involved in the various positions presented in these articles?  Also consider the relationships that different stakeholders have with news outlets and educational organizations. 
Educational News Sources:
Check out Schools Matter: http://schoolsmatter.blogspot.com  
(especially Peter Campbell’s contributions on the topics)
Transform Education Our public schools help create the people of the future. The people of the future create the world. For there to be social and economic justice in our world, our goal must be to prepare all children for the conversations that create the future. We can transform education and we can close the educational achievement gap only if we are willing to address the real sources of this gap and only if we are prepared to stand up for free, high-quality education for all children as their civil right.
Thursday, January 04, 2007
What if KIPP "worked"? 
What are the implications of KIPP "working," i.e., the consequences of KIPP being successful at what it claims to do?

KIPP schools are made up almost entirely of black or Hispanic students. KIPP's success undergirds the recent law passed by the Nebraska legislature, allowing for segregated schools in Omaha. In other words, looking at KIPP as an example, the argument could be made that while segregated schools might seem bad, they actually "work." Of course, what they work at doing is the question.

Why should this matter to us? After all, proponents of KIPP argue, "these children" need the basics in fifth grade because NO ONE TAUGHT THEM WELL ENOUGH BEFORE! If the school system they were in beforehand hadn't been so screwed up and awful, they could start where they're supposed to, with fifth grade material. And maybe they wouldn't all have to spend 70% more time in school just to catch up.

But let's not forget Brown v. Board, the Supreme Court decision that was supposed to end segregated schools in America:

"Segregation of white and Negro children in the public schools of a State solely on the basis of race, pursuant to state laws permitting or requiring such segregation, denies to Negro children the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment -- even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors of white and Negro schools may be equal."

Think of it. The Court said that segregation denies to low-income minority children the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment EVEN THOUGH the facilities of these segregated schools may be equal. So if we look at KIPP from the perspective of the Brown decision, we can see that KIPP denies to low-income minority children the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment EVEN IF these segregated schools raise their achievement. So EVEN IF KIPP lived up to all its praise -- which I have shown it does not -- it would still be unconstitutional. As the Court argued in the decision,

"Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school system."

The decision, delivered by Chief Justice Warren, took this view on the importance of public education:

"Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory school attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition of the importance of education to our democratic society. It is required in the performance of our most basic public responsibilities, even service in the armed forces. It is the very foundation of good citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening the child to cultural values, in preparing him for later professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment. In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms."

Maybe KIPP is all we can hope for. Maybe we have to throw up our hands and say, "We can't beat racism, so let's join it." Maybe we have to face the facts and say, "Poverty will always be with us, so we just to have to make the best of it." Maybe we have to admit that KIPP is not as great as it claims to be, but -- because it works for some kids -- then that is enough.

Imagine if we said the same thing about world hunger. Maybe we we have to throw up our hands and say, "We can't beat world hunger." Maybe we have to face the facts and say, "Hunger will always be with us, so we just to have to make the best of it." Maybe we have to admit that current solutions are not as great as they claim to be, but -- because not all children end up starving to death -- then that is enough.

Gee. Come to think of it, that IS what we say about world hunger. In fact, it's also what we say about AIDS. It's what we say about homelessness. It's what we say about drug addiction. It's what we say about global poverty. In fact, it's what we say about other people's suffering as a whole. We accept, in full self-fulfilling prophecy mode, that these problems can never be solved. We accept that the best we can do is make something intolerable a little more tolerable. The question is, tolerable for whom?

For all the kids that are not "lucky" enough to get a place at KIPP, it is not tolerable. For all the kids that do make it into KIPP but are not able to endure the 10-hour days and two hours of homework every night and who eventually drop out or are "counseled out," it is not tolerable. And even for those kids who do make it into KIPP and make it out of KIPP, their "success" is not tolerable because it comes at a price, a price that is too high to pay.


Weekly PEN newsblast http://www.publiceducation.org 

Education Week http://www.educationweek.org 

Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org 

New York Times http://nytimes.com 

Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com 

Search Google Scholar  http://scholar.google.com/  for articles on tracking 

Missed Opportunities
Leticia M. Hernandez
November 2002
As long as the school system has been in existence, there have been many cases of discrimination in one form or another. Blocked opportunities for students of a certain race and or in a lower socio-economic group have always existed. Many school officials, including various faculty members, have been responsible for rerouting minority students suggesting less demanding classes with the belief that these students could not handle the more advanced course work. This particular form of discrimination has been labeled tracking. For many years, racial minorities have been battling, and at times succumbing, to this form of discrimination.
Tracking involves dividing students based upon their learning capabilities and placing them in specific classes that will fit their particular needs. For instance, if a student does well in placement testing, they are placed in advanced classes that prepare them for college. On the other hand, if the student performs poorly on placement testing, they are placed in classes that are supposed to help the students in the areas that they are lacking.
Placement testing is not the only way of dividing up these groups. Sometimes a student’s race or socio-economic background is taken into consideration. Hispanic and African American students are usually the groups that are negatively affected by the process of tracking. “Thus, the practice of tracking places large numbers of students who are already economically disadvantaged at risk of being educationally disadvantaged” (Risley, 1999:1).
Tracking began back in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Risley, 1999:1). It was created to fulfill the needs of the education system in response to the increasing number of European immigrants and African Americans moving into the northern states. At that time, the growing industry was factory-based. In order to supply the factories with well-trained workers, the public school system was encouraged to train future factory workers. This need for factory workers brought on the practice of tracking. Within the system of tracking, if a student was considered a racial minority or from a lower socio-economic background, they were automatically placed in the lower track, which was designed for training students for factory work upon the completion of their high school education. On the other hand, if the student was white and from a higher socio-economic background, they were provided with the best educational opportunities by taking advanced courses, which prepared them for a four year college or university.
A form of tracking called ability grouping can begin in the kindergarten years (Risley, 1999:4).  Ability grouping is put into practice when children are put into groups based on their learning skills. The groups have advantages that include the extra attention needed for children that are not reading at a certain level which can bring them up to standard. The disadvantages include the alienation of students from the other advanced students along with the label of being a slow learner.  There are standards within the school system to determine how to track students. Standardized tests, recommendations from the teachers and counselors, and parent and student choices are considered. The criterion appears fair enough. What is hidden from full view is that the standardized tests have the tendency to be “racially and culturally biased against poor and minority students” (Risley, 1999:5). This in turn places the minority students at a disadvantage. They are considered slow learners based off of a biased test and as the students continue their education, they remain in their pre-prescribed tracks, which continues throughout their lives (Datnow, 1998:2). 
Many studies have falsely revealed the belief that a person’s learning capability is based upon the color of their skin (Risley, 1999:2). The inability for some students to complete difficult classes successfully is due to the limitations that were put forth by the school system. These students are believed to have the capability of being efficient workers and are trained in vocational programs which leads them to low paying jobs with little career advancement (Datnow, 1998:1). Thus the course work fits just that. It enables them to learn up to a certain degree of learning efficiency. Furthermore, the inability of being able to complete a difficult class puts the student in a mindset that instills in them limited achievement standards. This also fosters a belief that minorities are incapable of optimum performance in other areas besides school, which puts up barriers for future success.
Those students that benefit from tracking are predominantly white and are from higher socio-economic groups. At an early age, they are given the opportunities for advanced placement courses that prepare them for “the competitive college admissions process” (Walker, 2001:1). This is not saying that the opportunities are not there for minority students. They, at times, have to fight the system in order to be recognized as being able to handle the difficult course work required in an advanced course. The best, highly qualified teachers the school has to offer along with challenging course work teach the upper track courses. On the other hand, the students that are enrolled in the lower track courses are taught by “inexperienced or unqualified teachers” (Hill, 2002:1) along with a curriculum that is unchallenging and is based on “good behavior and menial skills” (Orozco, 2002:1).
The inequalities of tracking can also be related to the misinformation given to parents (Hill, 2002:2). The parents that are well educated are more aware of the opportunities within the school curriculum that can result in high levels of education for their children. For example, if a child is placed in advanced classes, they will more than likely adapt to the challenging course work and will continue to enroll in advanced classes as their education continues. This can occur when a student is very well advanced or when the parents are aware of the advanced classes and encourage their children to strive for accomplishing the course work. On the other hand, another student whose parents are not well educated, may be less aware of the advanced classes and will rely on the judgment of the teachers or counselors who will more than likely direct the students to lower track courses based on either their racial background or their parent’s lower socio-economic status. This child may be well equipped to handle the advanced course work, but will more than likely fall below the advanced course standards because of an opportunity not offered.
Tracking not only affects a student’s educational opportunities, but the friction between the racial groups is also increased (McNulty, 2001:2). At an early age, through academic tracking, students are silently made aware of the differences between whites and minorities, which fosters discrimination. The white students notice that they are the majority in the advanced classes and the African American and Hispanic students are aware that they are the majority in the lower track classes. This instills in the students a feeling of superiority and inferiority. The white students, because of the status of being in an advanced class, will feel powerful over the minority students and in turn the minority students will feel that they are inferior to the white students because they believe they are not as smart as the white students. These beliefs extend out of the school environment and into the work place that continues to keep the racial groups divided.
The process of de-tracking is designed to disassemble the tracking process and instill equality in the education of all students. De-tracking would still require different levels of education such as for “college intending” and “non-college intending” students (Hill, 2002:1). This would still produce an unbalanced number of students in the classes based on racial backgrounds. “Quality teachers” can play a vital role in the transition to the de-tracking process by providing their expertise of teaching lower ability students. Also, they can provide important information to “both parents and students by informing them of their options and the consequences thereof” (Hill, 2002:2). This has the possibility of increasing the lower ability student’s opportunity at succeeding in classes that were once thought of as difficult to accomplish by this group.
The process of tracking has proven to be unfair to racial minorities and lower socio-economic groups by creating a barrier that keeps them from exceeding the standards that are expected of lower track students. Furthermore, these students are faced with feelings of academic inferiority because of the differences between the upper track and lower track groups. This leaves a great number of students with the thought that they cannot succeed in comparison to white students in the classroom, which has proven to keep them in their pre-prescribed tracks throughout their lives. “By wasting the talents of so many through almost random assignment of students to tracks from district to district, we miss out on the contributions and great potential of those lower ability students” (Hill, 2002:2). 
Bibliography
Datnow, A, Ph. D. (1998).  Tracking of Students Is An Unwise Policy. The Gendered Politics of Educational Change, Retrieved October 10, 2002 from http://debate.uvm.edu/eesample/101.html
Hill, J. (2002).  Tracking in Schools…A Thing of the Past?  Retrieved October 10, 2002
McNulty, J. (2002).  New book reveals conflicted racial identity among white youth. U.C. Santa Cruz Currents, Retrieved October 10, 2002 from http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/01-02/04-01/identity.html
Orozco, L., Ph. D. (2002).  To Track or Not To Track.  On Line Lecture Series, Retrieved October 10, 2002 from http://hdcs.fullerton.edu/faculty/orozco/lecturetracking.html
Risley, B. (1999). The Inequality of Tracking: Implications for Minority and Lower Socioeconomic Status Students. Retrieved from http://horizon.unc.edu/edsp287/1999/team/tracking/tracking.html
Walker, T. (2001).  “Something is Wrong Here” Denver students confront racial Tracking at their high school. Teaching Tolerance, Retrieved October 5, 2002. From http://tolerance.org/teach/printar.jsp?p=0&ar=321&pi=ttm 



Contemplating & Applying This Lesson: 
Re-consider the focus questions from the beginning of this lesson to prepare yourself for the Lesson 7 assignment:
·	What is knowledge? 
·	Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge?  
·	How do our beliefs about knowledge form our assumptions about success and failure in school? 
·	What is tracking and how does it impact my classroom practice? 
·	Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance? 
·	Does tracking create different students and performances? 
·	What role do students’ perceptions of themselves and their capabilities (their identity) have in influencing their academic performance? 
·	What do grades and GPA (Grade Point Average) indicate about students? 
·	How do assumptions about the nature of academic success impact teacher beliefs about student ‘abilities?’  How do these beliefs impact teacher views of placement exams, curriculum, and tests?
Reflect on how the answers to the questions above impact your own personal philosophy of education and how that, in turn, impacts your teaching. You will use these thoughts to complete the Lesson 7 assessment.
Where can I find out more?     The learning activities for this lesson require you to do some research for your paper on a topic that impacts your teaching practice. You may find the following web sites helpful in doing your research. 
Web sites you may find helpful:  o Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org  o FairTest http://www.fairtest.org  o Specific to Virginia and Standards of Learning (SOLs): PAVURSOL http://www.solreform.com o Assessment Reform Network: http://www.fairtest.org/arn/arn.htm  o Public Education Network: http://www.publiceducation.org 	
Article You May Find Helpful for the Lesson 7 Assignment: Lucas, Samuel R. (1999). Tracking inequality: Stratification and mobility in American high schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Reviewed by Richard W. Race, Keele University:  http://edrev.asu.edu/reviews/rev55.htm	
Lesson 7 Assessment: 
For this lesson assignment you will reflect on the readings and learning activities to complete a four- to five-page, double-spaced paper on your choice of a topic related to educational measurement, tracking, and accountability. Specifically, you will: 
1.	Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 7 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns7.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns7.doc). You are to write your paper in the worksheet document, following the instructions which provide choices of topics and details on the content of the paper. Use the rubric provided below to guide your efforts and be sure to check your paper for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure. In addition, be sure to substantiate any statements you make or opinions with citations from the readings or from other sources you located. Include complete references at the end of your paper. 
2.	Submit Assignment Worksheet Paper for Grade - Your synopsis paper should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 7 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name:
[yourPID]_edfdns7.doc
Expectations: (40 total points possible) 
Your synopsis paper will be graded according to the following rubric:
Synopsis Paper Criteria	Points Possible	Standard for Full Credit	
Scope of Issue & How it Impacts Classroom Instruction	15	For one of the topics listed on the assignment worksheet, provided a thorough discussion of scope of the issue and its impact on classroom instruction. 	
Justification of Statements/Opinions	5	Participant substantiated all statements and opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites. 	
Comprehensiveness	10	Paper thoroughly addresses at least five (5) of the questions listed for the topic selected (can include some questions from the other topics). Paper lists the questions followed by a discussion related to each, and questions selected fit the chosen topic. 	
References	5	Paper includes references to the lesson readings and/or other resources located by the participant. All references are included in the paper bibliography. 	
Writing mechanics 	5	Paper is four-to-five double-spaced pages long (1 point), writing is logical and clear (1), and uses proper grammar and correct spelling (1), uses proper APA format for in-text citations (1) and end-of-paper references (1).	
Total Points Awarded/ Total Points Possible	/40	Comments:	
~~~ Continue to Screen 5 to access the Lesson 7 references. ~~~ 
Lesson 7 References:
Amrein, A.L., & Berliner, D.C. (2002, March 28). High stakes testing, uncertainty, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(18). Retrieved October 8, 2007 from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n18/ 
Berliner, D.C., & Biddle, B. (1995). Myths about achievement and aptitude. In The Manufactured Crisis (pp. 13-63).  Boston, MA:  Addison-Wesley.
Freedle, R.O. (2003). Correcting the SAT’s ethnic and social-class bias: A method for reestimating SAT scores.  Harvard Educational Review, 73(1). 
Gunzenhauser, M.G. (2003).  High-stakes testing and the default philosophy of education.  Theory Into Practice, Winter. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_1_42/ai_99909370/pg_1    
Kornhaber, M. (2004). Appropriate and inappropriate forms of testing, assessment and accountability. Educational Policy, 18(1), 45-70. 
Orel, S. (2002). 522 students pushed out of school in Birmingham, Alabama.  Retrieved October 8, 2007 from: http://www.bazmakaz.com/cs/media/SteveOrellWOO.pdf 
Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 
Rose, M. (1989). Lives on the boundary: A moving account of the struggles and achievements of America's educationally underprepared. New York: Penguin Books. 
Wells, A. & Serna, I. (1996). “The politics of culture: understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools.” Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 93-116. 
Wheelock, A. (1992). Crossing the tracks: How "untracking" can save America's schools.  NY: The New Press.

1. Topics on Inequity - Read the following articles on inequities in schooling:
Ideologies and Inequity - Tarca (2005). Colorblind in control: The risks of resisting difference amid demographic change. Educational Studies, 38(2), 99-119. Click here to access the article.

Racial Inequity in Special Education - Losen, D. & Orfield, G. (Eds.) (2002). The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University. Harvard Educational Press. Click here to access the article.
School Funding - Books, S. (1998). School Funding: tinkering with equity in times of ghettoization. In Educational Foundation. Click here to access the article.
2. Poverty & Housing - Poverty is a characteristic of all the possible topics listed for your Lesson 6 assignment. In this activity you will look up several references to explore some of the consequences of poverty in YOUR area. (Note: for this activity and for all web site searches in general, be sure to consider the authority and objectivity of the website sponsor.)

Questions to consider as you do this activity:
o What is the cost of housing in your area, how are areas zoned, and what are the busing routes?
o How economically and racially diverse are the schools?
o What are the social supports available for poorer families?
o If your area is not very economically diverse, why do you think that is the case?
o In your area, which schools are well funded, where do qualified teachers tend to work, how are ESL and non-white students linguistically and cultural supported, how are these students tracked, which schools and students are provided with rich college preparatory programs, and which students and schools are provided with basic health and safety safeguards?
a. Look up the Virginia county-level rates for children in poverty for 2004:

http://ers.usda.gov/Data/PovertyRates/PovListpct.asp?ST=VA&view=Percent

Virginia Tech University is located in Montgomery County, which has a poverty rate of 14.3% for children. In some counties, the rate for all people in poverty is higher than the rate for children in poverty, and in some counties it is just the reverse. Which county poverty rates do you think are important to note? What's the poverty rate in your school's county?
b. Consider also the information available at the following websites related to poverty:
America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being 2005, Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics
http://www.childstats.gov/pubs.asp

Basic Facts About Low-Income Children in the United States, National Center for Children in Poverty
http://nccp.org/publications/pub_762.html
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
http://www.ahrq.gov/
Children & Asthma in America
http://www.asthmainamerica.com
CDC [lead]
http://www.cdc.gov
Sub-clinical Lead Toxicity in U.S. Children
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/281/5383/1617
EPA [environmental measures, contaminants, body burdens, illness]
http://www.epa.gov
Challenges specific to mothers
Job discrimination against single working mothers
http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060522/blades/4
4. Newsweek magazine does a yearly rating of high schools in America. Their Best High Schools List uses a ratio, the number of Advanced Placement (AP) and/or International Baccalaureate (IB) tests taken by all students at a school in 2006, divided by the number of graduating seniors. This rating doesn't reflect the whole story about schools, but it compares a wide range of students' readiness for higher-level work (e.g., college). Check out the rating here:

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/site/newsweek/

For 2007, Blacksburg High School in Blacksburg (home of Virginia Tech) was rated as 330th in the nation. Is the high school you attended on the list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation? If you teach high school, is the school where you teach on the list? (Note that you can enter the abbreviation for your state and list all the high schools in your state that are on the list.)

Now compare the Virginia child poverty rates you recorded from item #3.a. above, to the listing of top schools for 2005 (the closest year to the poverty statistics for Virginia; use the tab at the top of the chart to access the 2005 statistics). Clearly, more than poverty rates affect the quality of schooling. For example, note the poverty rate for Montgomery County and then consider that while Blacksburg High School is 264th on the 2005 list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation, Christiansburg High School (which is also in Montgomery County), is not even on the list. Can you draw any conclusions from your observations? Save them for the Lesson 6 assignment.
5. For the Lesson 6 assignment, you are to select an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your teaching practice. Please note that there are a number of web sites and helpful articles provided on Screen 3 of this lesson in the section entitled, "Where can I find out more?" that you may want to use to obtain data on the demographics and educational opportunities of America's students.

Lesson 6 - Issues in Education: Inequities in Education Screen 2 of 5 <Previous> <Next> Lesson Discussion Teachers frequently find that their socioeconomic background and experiences are very different from that of the students they teach. This is especially true in urban schools. If the teacher's race is also different from that of his or her students, the challenge of relating to students, motivating them and making learning experiences relevant becomes even greater. Such conditions make it very difficult for teachers to identify and deal constructively with their own preconceptions and expectations in a way that maximizes their students' opportunities to succeed acadmically. If the situation is further complicated by educational inequities of which the teacher is unaware, then he or she may erroneously conclude that the students are either unable or unwilling to learn. Our identities are connected to the communities in which we participate. The traditions, beliefs, values, identities, morals, and histories of various groups and communities are the cultural reference points from which individuals make sense of each other and the world. Individuals, organizations and institutions tend to act out the interests of the communities in which their cultural reference points originate. Therefore, you can expect that as a teacher you will do the same unless you consciously try to consider the interests of your students. In Lesson 4 you considered the social factors that impact educational quality and availability. In this lesson, you will take a closer look at some of the root causes of educational inequity and how they impact learning and classroom instruction. As you complete the readings and learning activities for this lesson, you should select one of the topics related to educational inequity and collect information and statistics to write a four-to-five page, double-spaced position paper on that topic and how it impacts (or should impact) your professional practice. (To review some of the options for your paper, refer to the assignment details on the Lesson 6 Assignment Worksheet for this lesson.) In America today, educational inequity persists along socioeconomic, racial and cultural lines. To illustrate, the National Center for Education Statistics reports that by the age of 9, children in low-income communities are an average of three grade levels behind their more affluent peers. Half of these children will not graduate from high school, and those who do graduate tend to read and do math on par with eighth graders in high-income communities. These disparities severely limit the life prospects of the 13 million children growing up in poverty today. Children growing up in low-income areas are seven times less likely to graduate from college than children from higher-income communities. Race and ethnicity also enters the picture, because African-American and Latino/Hispanic children are three times as likely to grow up in a low-income area, thus further limiting their opportunities in life. (2007, from http://www.teachforamerica.com/mission/index.htm ) Social Capital Social capital is the advantage created by a person's relationships, group memberships, and social networks (Bourdieu, 1986; Portes, 1998). Through social capital, some people gain access and success in a particular setting through their superior connections to other people. By virtue of the social networks to which an individual belongs, he or she acquires social capital. We acquire social values, beliefs, perspectives, and cultural reference points through participation in the practices of the social networks (families, groups, communities, regions, and histories) in which we are born, live, and work. In this lesson, we explore social capital as a possession and capacity of long-standing communities and groups and its impact on education. Usually when we hear the term "capital," we think in terms of individual economic advantage. The learning activities for this lesson invite you to consider how the collective capacities of long-standing social groups, communities, and classes enables them to ensure their interests, to negotiate and to solve problems. It is important to note that long standing groups’ collective capacities are developed in relation to other groups’ collective capacity, and in many cases at the expense of those groups - permanently crippling their ability to accumulate the collective capital necessary for their community to negotiate and ensure their interest. For example, middle to upper middle class parents may use their social network and power to ensure, negotiate, and rationalize school advantages for their children. Consider these questions: · How do some communities, groups and classes call upon social capital, activating social power to ensure their interests? Alternatively, how are some communities, groups and classes vulnerable due to a lack of social capital to ensure their interests? · How does social capital affect school funding and the sources of school funding? · How does school funding relate to educational equity? · In what ways is the United States unique in how schools are funded and disparities between school funding as compared to other industrialized nations? Collective assets and social support are part of the social capital created by long-standing communities. “Upgrading” neighborhoods through urban renewal often displaces long-time lower income residents to make room for higher income residents who can pay the increased rents. Because of this phenomenon, communities with little social capital but a great deal of support in their social network can lose their communal social capital as a result of the displacement and disruption of urban renewal. Ideology The following excerpt is from Lye, J. (1997). “Ideology: class resource.” Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, Brok University, Ontario, Canada. Accessed at http://www.brocku.ca/english/jlye/ideology.html Ideology is a term used to refer to how cultures are structured to enable the group holding power to have the maximum control with the minimum of conflict. This is not a matter of groups deliberately planning to oppress people or alter their consciousness (although this can happen), but rather a reflection of how the dominant institutions in society work through values, conceptions of the world, and symbol systems, in order to legitimize the current order. Briefly, this legitimization is managed through the widespread teaching (the social adoption) of ideas about the way things are, how the world 'really' works and should work. These ideas (often embedded in symbols and cultural practices) orient people's thinking in such a way that they accept the current way of doing things, the current sense of what is 'natural,' and the current understanding of their roles in society. This socialization process, the shaping of our cognitive and affective interpretations of our social world, is carried out by churches, schools, the family, and through cultural forms (such as literature, rock music, advertising, sitcoms, etc.). ...For example, we assume that democracy is the political system best suited to the nature and aspirations of humans, we see history as a movement towards democracy, [and] we assume that once all nations have achieved democracy they will continue to be democracies forever, unless they erode. These assumptions are ideology. The article by Tarca (2005) in the following learning activities will provide you with an example of how ideologies can "muddy" the topic of educational inequities and make it harder to recognize and deal with them. As you read, consider the following questions: · What is the basis that you use to make sense of a student’s academic performance? · What are your assumptions concerning your students' abilities, motivation, talent, intentions, the communities they come from, and the involvement of their parent(s) or guardian(s) in their schooling? · How may your cultural reference points play out in your teaching and assessment? One Cause of Inequity: Residential Segregation Although our nation's school systems are no longer physically segregated, inequalities still exist which have been created by poverty's continuous assault on neurological integrity and development and the barriers it creates to academic achievement. -Rochelle Mozlin, Associate Clinical Professor of Optometry, State U. of NY Rather than segregated schools, the problem is often residential segregation. Residential segregation is “the degree to which two or more groups live separately from one another” (Massey and Denton, 1988). Frequently, residential segregation results when schools are funded from tax revenues at the local level, so if the neighborhood is rich, a given school in the neighborhood will likely have everything it needs. However, if the neighborhood is poor, it is likely that the teachers will be paying for the students' pencils out of their own pocket. In 86% of states, school districts with the largest numbers of poor children have less money to spend per pupil than districts with the fewest poor children. In addition, there is a large gap between the resources available to districts with a majority of students of color and districts with a student population a majority of white students. For example, in 2000, the median assets for a white household were $79,400, for African American households this was $7,500 (a disparity of 900%). Thus, for every $1 in assets held by the average African American family, the average white family has $9 in assets, which open doors to more educational and life style opportunities. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau) Residential segregation is frequently caused by one or more factors, including housing costs, discrimination, and/or the choices of residents who are more comfortable living near those who are like themselves. But even if individual choice is the main reason for a homogeneous neighborhood, segregation is more than just the physical isolation of people, segregation is isolation from opportunity and opportunity structures. The problem is multi-faceted and there are no simple solutions. Consider that: 1. Families who have access to affordable housing have more money to spend on transportation. 2. More money to spend on transportation enables adults in such families to consider a broader range of better-paying jobs. 3. A better job provides more money, which enables parents to provide their children with good food, more stable housing and better educational opportunities. 4. Well-fed children with stable housing tend to do better in school. 5. Having access to greater educational opportunities and doing better in school allows these children to achieve regular employment. To reverse the problems associated with residential segregation and educational quality, some suggest that communities must: · provide affordable housing that is deliberately located within high performing school districts; · implement strategies for sustaining employment in the region; · provide the necessary transportation infrastructure and childcare to enable low-income parents to get and keep good jobs; and · establish institutions that facilitate civic and political activity to give underserved populations a voice in educational policy. One possible solution being implemented in communities is "regionalism." Regionalism recognizes that the economy, infrastructure (transportation, utilities, etc.) and the labor market function on a regional level (for example, encompassing a city and its suburbs). Proponents of regionalism therefore emphasize that resources should be administered at a regional - rather than a city or federal - level. But What Can A Teacher Do? The societal problems that produce educational inequities are so complex that you might be tempted to give up any hope of being able to help. However, for the learning activities for this lesson you will be asked to consider the successes of Teach for American, a non-profit organization that recruits top college graduates to work in the neediest school districts across the U.S. Wendy Kopp, founder of Teach for America, argues that there is much that the individual teacher can do. She agrees that giving underprivileged and underperforming students the same resources as those provided to privileged students is a start, but she stresses that teachers and administrators must also: · put in the extra time required to change students' attitudes about their own capability for achieving success; · establish and communicate high expectations for the achievement of all students; · push students to fulfill their highest potential; · recruit teachers from a variety of disciplines, not just those with degrees in education; · provide teachers with the practical support they need and pay them well. In addition, the individual teacher can take advantage of opportunities to minimize situations and factors that work against positive growth and should capitalize on other opportunities to enhance social-emotional learning. Opportunities for growth present themselves through both positive and negative encounters that occur inside and outside your classroom, including: · cooperative learning experiences · peer sharing and tutoring · when addressing interpersonal and learning problems · incidents of bullying · service learning opportunities in the community · engaging students in strategies to enhance a caring, supportive, and safe school climate · attitude and skill development during conflict resolution and crisis prevention efforts · mentoring students in personal and social development when dealing with stressors such as: o increasingly difficult homework, o interpersonal conflicts, o testing and grading pressures, o special events associated with holidays, social activities and sports, o grade promotions and graduation. You should attempt to minimize such stressors and enhance students' ability to cope through social-emotional learning and shared problem solving. There are other things you can do, as well. As you contemplate this, consider the following questions: · How can teachers, administrators, and community members support communities that are underrepresented in local school decision-making processes that affect their children? · In your community or school, what kinds of institutional actions have you seen taken in response to demographic changes in student populations? · How have you seen the interests, worldviews or values of specific groups, organizations, or communities influence or shape schooling practices in your community? · How can communities participate in the decision-making process for public school policies and programs? For the Lesson 6 assignment, you will be asked to research an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your professional practice, and identify things you can do to minimize the effects of that inequity in your classroom. The learning activities for this lesson should help you gather information for this assignment. Take a moment now, before tackling the learning activities, to review your options for the Lesson 6 paper. Learning Activities: As you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice. Reading & Reflection Assignment Complete the following activities & save your work for the Lesson 6 assignment. 1. Poverty's Effect on Potential - Read the Executive Summary and scan the rest of the following report, "Achievement Trap: How America is Failing Millions of High-Achieving Students from Lower-Income Families." This report was completed by Civic Enterprises LLC, a Washington-based research and public-policy group, and the Lansdowne, Virginia-based Jack Kent Cooke Foundation. The authors analyzed national data to track the school performance of about 3.4 million K-12 children who came from households with incomes below the national median but who scored in the top quartile on nationally normed tests. The study found that lower income, high-achieving students start school with weaker academic skills and are less likely to flourish over the years in school than their peers from economically better-off families. Note that the study recommendations are limited and the authors don't mention some other possible solutions to the problem, such as equitable distribution of highly skilled teachers, and access to quality preschools. Research the sponsoring foundations. Do they appear to be un-biased or do they seem to have an agenda? What conclusions do you draw from the information in the report? Cite references to support your opinions. Save your answers for the Lesson 6 assignment. Wyner, Bridgeland & Diiulio (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from lower-income families. 2. Topics on Inequity - Read following articles on inequities in schooling: Ideologies and Inequity - Tarca (2005). Colorblind in control: The risks of resisting difference amid demographic change. Educational Studies, 38(2), 99-119. Click here to access the article. Racial Inequity in Special Education - Losen, D. & Orfield, G. (Eds.) (2002). The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University. Harvard Educational Press. Click here to access the article. School Funding - Books, S. (1998). School Funding: tinkering with equity in times of ghettoization. In Educational Foundation. Click here to access the article. 3. Poverty & Housing - Poverty is a characteristic of all the possible topics listed for your Lesson 6 assignment. In this activity you will look up several references to explore some of the consequences of poverty in YOUR area. (Note: for this activity and for all web site searches in general, be sure to consider the authority and objectivity of the website sponsor.) Questions to consider as you do this activity: o What is the cost of housing in your area, how are areas zoned, and what are the busing routes? o How economically and racially diverse are the schools? o What are the social supports available for poorer families? o If your area is not very economically diverse, why do you think that is the case? o In your area, which schools are well funded, where do qualified teachers tend to work, how are ESL and non-white students linguistically and cultural supported, how are these students tracked, which schools and students are provided with rich college preparatory programs, and which students and schools are provided with basic health and safety safeguards? a. Look up the Virginia county-level rates for children in poverty for 2004: http://ers.usda.gov/Data/PovertyRates/PovListpct.asp?ST=VA&view=Percent Virginia Tech University is located in Montgomery County, which has a poverty rate of 14.3% for children. In some counties, the rate for all people in poverty is higher than the rate for children in poverty, and in some counties it is just the reverse. Which county poverty rates do you think are important to note? What's the poverty rate in your school's county? b. Consider also the information available at the following websites related to poverty: America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being 2005, Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics http://www.childstats.gov/pubs.asp Basic Facts About Low-Income Children in the United States, National Center for Children in Poverty http://nccp.org/publications/pub_762.html Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality http://www.ahrq.gov/ Children & Asthma in America http://www.asthmainamerica.com CDC [lead] http://www.cdc.gov Sub-clinical Lead Toxicity in U.S. Children http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/281/5383/1617 EPA [environmental measures, contaminants, body burdens, illness] http://www.epa.gov Challenges specific to mothers Job discrimination against single working mothers http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060522/blades/4 4. Newsweek magazine does a yearly rating of high schools in America. Their Best High Schools List uses a ratio, the number of Advanced Placement (AP) and/or International Baccalaureate (IB) tests taken by all students at a school in 2006, divided by the number of graduating seniors. This rating doesn't reflect the whole story about schools, but it compares a wide range of students' readiness for higher-level work (e.g., college). Check out the rating here: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/site/newsweek/ For 2007, Blacksburg High School in Blacksburg (home of Virginia Tech) was rated as 330th in the nation. Is the high school you attended on the list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation? If you teach high school, is the school where you teach on the list? (Note that you can enter the abbreviation for your state and list all the high schools in your state that are on the list.) Now compare the Virginia child poverty rates you recorded from item #3.a. above, to the listing of top schools for 2005 (the closest year to the poverty statistics for Virginia; use the tab at the top of the chart to access the 2005 statistics). Clearly, more than poverty rates affect the quality of schooling. For example, note the poverty rate for Montgomery County and then consider that while Blacksburg High School is 264th on the 2005 list of the top 1,300 schools in the nation, Christiansburg High School (which is also in Montgomery County), is not even on the list. Can you draw any conclusions from your observations? Save them for the Lesson 6 assignment. 5. For the Lesson 6 assignment, you are to select an aspect of educational inequity that impacts (or should impact) your teaching practice. Please note that there are a number of web sites and helpful articles provided on Screen 3 of this lesson in the section entitled, "Where can I find out more?" that you may want to use to obtain data on the demographics and educational opportunities of America's students. ~~~~~~~ Continue to Screen 3 for lesson applications and more resources on the topic. ~~~~~~~ Screen <1> <2> <3> <4> <5>

You can access different parts of Lesson 7 by clicking on the links below.	

Lesson 7 Issues II: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"  Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment Discussion and Learning Activities Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?  Assessment: Lesson 7 Assignment Lesson References	
Lesson 7 - Issues: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"    Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability" Mike Rose, the author of the book Lives on the Boundary (1989), presents an atypical view of knowledge and its role in education: There is a strong impulse in American education - curious in a country with such an ornery streak of anti-traditionalism - to define achievement and excellence in terms of the acquisition of a historically validated body of knowledge, an authoritative list of books and allusions, a canon. We seek a certification of our national intelligence, indeed, our national virtue, in how diligently our children can display this central corpus of information (p. 233). In this lesson you will consider how educators and educational systems tend to determine the nature of the knowledge children are to obtain through schooling, and how many aspects of American schooling are tied to this accepted “knowledge canon.” Frequently, ability classifications, rich curriculum, and tracking are designed to align with that knowledge canon and therefore tend to favor children from the communities who can display that knowledge.  The accepted knowledge canon also impacts the design of tests that are used to determine a student’s success or failure and to hold schools accountable for educating students.   What is the nature of the instruction and assessments used by teachers to determine academic success and placement?  Are they truly valid, neutral and sufficient? Focus Questions · What is knowledge?  · Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge?   · How do our beliefs about knowledge form our assumptions about success and failure in school?  · What is tracking and how does it impact my classroom practice?  · Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance?  · Does tracking create different students and performances?  · What role do students’ perceptions of themselves and their capabilities (their identity) have in influencing their academic performance?  · What do grades and GPA (Grade Point Average) indicate about students?  · How do assumptions about the nature of academic success impact teacher beliefs about student ‘abilities?’  How do these beliefs impact teacher views of placement exams, curriculum, and tests?  Instructions You have several articles to read and web sites to explore for this lesson and one week to complete the readings and assignment. To procede with this lesson, do the following: 1. Read and reflect on the focus questions above. 2. Read and consider the Lesson 7 learning objectives below to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson; 3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop (link provided below) and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:  [yourPID]_edfdns7.doc  4. Read screens 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this online lesson;  5. Complete the lesson readings and learning activities; 6. Complete your assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen.  Lesson Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to...  · articulate and defend your opinion on the impact of social class on the availability of choices and opportunities in education;  · understand the meaning and use of the terms AYP, high stakes testing, tracking and de-tracking;  · critically reflect on the readings and learning activities and develop a paper on some aspect of educational measurement, tracking, and/or accountability.   Reading Assignment · Use the links on the following screens to access the article and web site readings for this lesson.   	
Lesson 7 - Issues: Educational Measures, Tracking & "Ability"    Lesson Discussion To enter the dialogue concerning educational testing and measurement, there are several terms with which you should be familiar.   What standards are used for instruction? In Virginia, the standards to which instruction is aligned (matched) are the Standards of Learning (commonly referred to as “SOLs”).  The SOLs are the minimum curriculum requirements for student achievement in the state curriculum.  They were developed by the Virginia Department of Education to establish standards of learning for kindergarten through the 12th grade in four academic areas: English (including reading and writing), math, science, and history and social science (history, geography, civics, and economics).  They also incorporate learning standards for computer technology.  Students are tested in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, and 11th grades and must pass a minimum number of high school SOL tests in order to receive a diploma.  Note that each state has its own standards, for example, Texas has TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills), and West Virginia has the WESTEST (West Virginia Educational Standards Test).      What is Adequate Yearly Progress? Adequate Yearly Progress. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires schools, school divisions, and states to meet annual objectives or AYP targets for student performance on statewide tests.  There are 29 targets, or benchmarks, that have been identified for AYP. These benchmarks are measures of progress toward the goals established for student participation and performance on statewide tests in reading and mathematics, and they are defined for seven subgroups of students: · all students,  · students who are limited English proficient (LEP),  · students with disabilities,  · three state-defined ethnic populations: for Virginia these are Black, Hispanic and White, and  · economically disadvantaged students (defined as those eligible to receive free and reduced-price lunches)  In addition, AYP dictates that school divisions and states must make progress towards meeting annual objectives for attendance in elementary and middle schools, and toward numbers of graduates in high schools.   According to the requirements of NCLB, if a school misses a single benchmark in just one subgroup, the school does not make AYP (except for uncontrollable circumstances).  This holds true for school divisions as well.   If a school or school division fails to meet AYP for three consecutive years, schools may receive corrective action by the state, or may eventually lose their federal funding.  As a result, this external accountability puts increasing pressure on administrators and teachers to consider the benchmarks and subpopulations in their schools as they plan curriculum and methodology. Teachers can no longer simply look at general student performance to plan instruction. They must also look at subgroups within their classroom to ensure not one child is 'left behind' when state tests are administered.   AYP is a complicated issue, and has attracted much criticism as well as admiration for the authors of NCLB. To discern whether the law needs adjustment, consider the state of education prior to NCLB to determine whether improvements in student achievement have been realized, then consider the educational goals for the future. For instance, in its present form, NCLB says 100% of U.S. schools will be able to meet AYP in reading and mathematics by 2014.  Is that a realistic goal?  Each teacher has his or her own opinion of NCLB and AYP.  What do you think? Have you seen evidence in your school of how AYP drives instruction? (See also http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/src/understandingayp.shtml)     What is “high-stakes testing?”   High-stakes testing is a method developed to implement standards and ensure accountability of schools.  It refers to the use of standardized tests as criteria to determine the promotion of children to the next grade, high school graduation, teacher bonuses, and the governance and quality of schools.  The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 expands the role of such tests by legislating their incorporation into states' school accountability programs.  While such testing has focused attention on desirable standards of knowledge and achievement, there have been many controversial by-products of the movement.  Some of the negative consequences of high-stakes testing for schools and students include such issues as: · The impact of standardized testing on student drop-out, discharge and push out rates, and on dis-enrollment of students;  · Problems with transferring to new schools, cheating on standardized tests, problems with grading standardized tests, GED program enrollment increases and demographic changes;  · The varying impact of testing on different schools, communities and families, including the unique challenges for poorer schools and students, and the impact of heavier sanctions for Title I schools.  Critics claim that high stakes tests tend to drive the curriculum, limit instructional innovation, and keep educators from establishing their own priorities and visions.  They also caution that no single measure is comprehensive enough to tell us everything we need to know about schools, students and schooling experience. Claiming that high stakes-testing as a single measure has affected more than how we see schooling, they warn that it is now affecting the day-to-day practices of teachers and schooling, creating a testing culture in public schools. Many scholars are concerned that this testing culture has fundamentally changed the relationship between schools and students. One concern is that the consequences and sanctions against schools that do poorly on high stakes tests (which involve harsher penalties for Title I schools), has created a climate where school administrators feel the need to protect and recruit students who do well on testing.  The readings in this lesson will help you decide what you think about the issue. What is the “the nation’s report card”? The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, also known as “The Nation’s Report Card”) is a periodic assessment of what America’s students know and can do in the areas of mathematics, reading, science, writing, the arts, civics, economics, geography and U.S. history.  The NAEP has three levels of achievement (Basic, Proficient, and Advanced) that indicate what students should know and be able to do at each grade assessed for each subject assessed by NAEP.  By law, the Commissioner of Education Statistics at the U.S. Department of Education is responsible for carrying out the NAEP project.  The National Assessment Governing Board, a bipartisan group, sets policy for NAEP and is responsible for developing the framework and test specifications that serve as the blueprint for the assessments.  Board members include governors, state legislators, local and state school officials, educators, business representatives, and members of the general public.  For more, visit the NAEP site at http://nationsreportcard.gov  or http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/    What is tracking?   Tracking is the practice, now in use for a century or more, of categorizing students into distinct groups according to certain measures of intelligence for purposes of teaching and learning.  Often, this involves grouping students in “fast” and “slow” or “remedial” and “advanced” groups.  Thus classified, students are then provided with curriculum and instruction that supposedly suits their abilities and potential future.  Critics say that this practice often leads to racial and socioeconomic segregation within schools, and that being placed in the low track often ahs long-lasting negative effects on such students.  The learning activities for this lesson will prompt you to read more on tracking and the alternative of “un-tracking” or “de-tracking.”  Read the article by Anne Wheelock (1992) “Crossing the tracks: How ‘untracking’ can save America’s schools.  The article is available at: http://www.middleweb.com/Whlcktrack.html  or by using this course link.   Bias in Educational Measures This lesson looks a little closer at the tools teachers use, and how they are assumed to be neutral when used for placement, testing and assessment.  Mike Rose, author of Lives on the Boundary (1989), challenges assumptions about student error (failed performance), questioning what teachers and assessors commonly think these failures indicate, and how concepts of student failure inform teaching and assessment practices: Through all my experiences with people struggling to learn, the one thing that strikes me most is the ease with which we misperceive failed performance and the degree to which this misperception both reflects and reinforces the social order (p. 205). When teachers make sense of a student’s failed or successful performances, what do they assume about the student? What assumptions do teachers make about the validity of placement exams, curriculum, and assessment? How do these assumptions impact teaching and learning?  Complete the following learning activities to find out more. NOTE: For the Lesson 7 assignment, you will be asked to write a paper on some aspect of educational measurement, tracking and/or accountability. The learning activities for this lesson should help you gather information for this assignment. Take a moment now, before tackling the learning activities, to review your topic options for the Lesson 7 paper.  Learning Activities:  The following learning activities involve a large amount of reading or scanning.  It is important that you familiarize yourself with all the issues involved, so please at least scan all the resources listed.  However, to help guide the depth with which you read or scan, you may wish to first access the Lesson 7 assignment worksheet to review the possible topics for your paper.  Reading & Reflection Assignment Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment.  1. Viewing Assignment - View the 55-minute video on testing in American schools entitled "Testing Our Schools" (2003) produced by the Merrow Report and available at the Annenberg Foundation website (scroll down to #49, “Testing Our Schools”):   http://www.learner.org/resources/series99.html?pop=yes&vodid=388801&pid=1098#  As you view the video, take note of the pros and cons concerning the testing currently used in our educational systems, and record your thoughts to add to your Lesson 7 assignment. 2. Reading Assignment - Read or scan the following articles on testing, push out, and tracking, and record your thoughts on them for the Lesson 7 assignment:  a. Kornhaber, M. (2004). Appropriate and inappropriate forms of testing, assessment and accountability. Educational Policy, 18(1), 45-70. (25 pages)   As you read, think about:    How do we as teachers tend to think about students error?   Do we tend to think of error in a technical content, such as task analysis, or do we think of error in a social context? Why might this difference between technical and social matter?  b. Orel, S. (2002). 522 students pushed out of school...    This article provides an overview of the problem of “push-out.”  As you read, think about:  · How schools might protect and ensure positive testing student populations and how this relates to issues of equity in education.  · Standardized testing and its impact on student drop-out, discharge, and push out rates, and dis-enrollment of students.   · Related issues such as transferring to new schools, cheating on standardized tests, problems with grading standardized tests, demographic changes and GED program enrollment increases, and the effect of high-stakes testing on drop out rates.  · How these issues affect schools, communities and families from different socio-economic backgrounds?  · How do these issues relate to merit pay for teachers based on standardized test scores?  c. Freedle, R.O. (2003). Correcting the SAT’s ethnic and social-class bias: A method for re-estimating SAT scores. Harvard Educational Review, 73(1).   d. Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2002). High stakes testing, uncertainly, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archive, 10(18).   (This article is quite long, so read through page 17 and the conclusion, and then scan the rest of the article for information that relates to the topic you chose to write about for the Lesson 7 assignment.) 3. Web Exploration - Dr. Linda Orozco  of California State University, Fullerton, offers a good introduction to some of the literature and positions on tracking in education.  Read the following introduction and record your thoughts on Dr. Orozco’s “questions to consider,” saving them for the Lesson 7 assignment:  http://hdcs.fullerton.edu/faculty/orozco/lecturetracking.html In addition, scan the two following articles for an update and different perspective on the issue of tracking:  Hallinan, M. (2004). University of Notre Dame. “The Detracking Movement” at Education Next, at: http://www.educationnext.org/20044/72.html  Wells & Serna (1996). The politics of culture: understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), pp 93-116 (23 pages).  As you read/scan, think about: · Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge?  · How do our assumptions about knowledge affect how we make sense of failure?  · Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance?  · Does tracking create different students and performances?  4. Current Status of These Issues - Read the following questions and then use the web links below to search for and find at least three (3) current (written in the last three years) education stories, special reports, and issues in the educational news sources that discuss testing, tracking and “de-tracking” (also called “un-tracking”), and push out (at least one article on each topic).  Briefly write up your answers to the questions and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment.  · How does standardized testing favorably and/or unfavorably impact your students and teaching?  · What have been your experiences with tracking, both as a student and as a teacher? How do those experiences relate to the article(s) you found on tracking?  · Have you noted “push out” or similar effects of standardized testing at your school or in your district?  · Who are the stakeholders and what are the assumptions involved in the various positions presented in these articles?  Also consider the relationships that different stakeholders have with news outlets and educational organizations.  Educational News Sources: Check out Schools Matter: http://schoolsmatter.blogspot.com   (especially Peter Campbell’s contributions on the topics)  Weekly PEN newsblast http://www.publiceducation.org   Education Week http://www.educationweek.org   Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org   New York Times http://nytimes.com   Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com   Search Google Scholar  http://scholar.google.com/  for articles on tracking   ~~~~~~~ Continue to Screen 3 for lesson applications and more resources on the topic.  ~~~~~~~ Screen <1> <2> <3> <4> <5>  	
From:  Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2002). High stakes testing, uncertainly, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archive, 10(18).   	
3.	Web Exploration - Dr. Linda Orozco  of California State University, Fullerton, offers a good introduction to some of the literature and positions on tracking in education.  Read the following introduction and record your thoughts on Dr. Orozco’s “questions to consider,” saving them for the Lesson 7 assignment: 
http://hdcs.fullerton.edu/faculty/orozco/lecturetracking.html
In addition, scan the two following articles for an update and different perspective on the issue of tracking:

Hallinan, M. (2004). University of Notre Dame. “The Detracking Movement” at Education Next, at: http://www.educationnext.org/20044/72.html 
Wells & Serna (1996). The politics of culture: understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), pp 93-116 (23 pages). 
As you read/scan, think about:
·	Does the predominant social order dictate what is desirable with regards to knowledge and academic performance?  If so, how?  If not, what dictates desirable performance and knowledge? 
·	How do our assumptions about knowledge affect how we make sense of failure? 
·	Do different learning experiences create differences in student performance? 
·	Does tracking create different students and performances? 
4.	Current Status of These Issues - Read the following questions and then use the web links below to search for and find at least three (3) current (written in the last three years) education stories, special reports, and issues in the educational news sources that discuss testing, tracking and “de-tracking” (also called “un-tracking”), and push out (at least one article on each topic).  Briefly write up your answers to the questions and save your work for the Lesson 7 assignment. 
·	How does standardized testing favorably and/or unfavorably impact your students and teaching? 
·	What have been your experiences with tracking, both as a student and as a teacher? How do those experiences relate to the article(s) you found on tracking? 
·	Have you noted “push out” or similar effects of standardized testing at your school or in your district? 
·	Who are the stakeholders and what are the assumptions involved in the various positions presented in these articles?  Also consider the relationships that different stakeholders have with news outlets and educational organizations. 
Educational News Sources:
Check out Schools Matter: http://schoolsmatter.blogspot.com  
(especially Peter Campbell’s contributions on the topics)

You can access different parts of Lesson 8 by clicking on the links below.

Lesson 8 Issues III: Educational Reform Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment Discussion and Learning Activities Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more? Assessment: Lesson 8 Assignment Lesson References
Educational Effectiveness & Reform What makes a school or a teacher effective? Just what do we mean by "effective schools"? If a school isn’t effective, what can we do to reform or improve it? The readings for this lesson cover the broad topic of educational effectiveness and attempts to reform education when that effectiveness is lacking. American education has experienced a wide range of reforms over the years, from efforts to develop state and local standards, to new forms of assessment, innovations in technology, and applications of new approaches to teaching and learning. Knowing about what works and what is being suggested by way of reform enables you to make informed decisions about what has merit and deserves your support. Attempts at educational reform cannot succeed without the support of the educators involved. However, it is important that you understand that many trends and reforms in education are cyclical: they come and go and sometimes reappear under a different name (Tyack & Cuban, 1997). When you are informed about what has been attempted in the past and the merits of different efforts, you will be able to dialogue intelligently about reforms with new as well as established educational colleagues. Lessons 6 and 7 underscored the fact that many powerful factors affecting schooling reside outside of schools and classrooms. As a result, efforts at educational reform are often limited in their success. In addition to educational effectiveness and educational reform, this lesson also addresses the efforts of those who work toward improving educational effectiveness through social and economic reform. These reformers echo John Dewey’s (1859-1952) call for a public sphere where experts and citizens from various communities collaborate together in participatory social inquiry to solve the social problems that intersect with and relate to educational equity. Instructions You have one chapter to read in your text for this lesson and several articles and web sites to scan. One week has been allotted to allow you time to complete the readings and assignment. To procede with this lesson, do the following: 1. Read and reflect on the focus questions from your text (page 474), plus the following focus questions: · What do the school-, teacher-, and student-level factors identified by Marzano have to do with school effectiveness? · How can multiple communities and stakeholders with competing interests come together as active participants in making decisions about school policy and reform? How can they “share leadership?” · How does the move toward a global economy impact the goals and implementation of education? 2. Read and consider the Lesson 8 learning objectives, below, to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson; 3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet: [yourPID]_edfdns8.doc 4. Read screens 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this online lesson and complete the learning activities described; 5. Complete the lesson readings, listed below; 6. Complete your copy of the assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen. Lesson Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to... · reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of various educational reforms for improving the effectiveness of American education; · consider how the school-level and teacher-level factors identified by Marzano can promote student achievement and an effective school and classroom environment; · consider measures that can be taken by schools and teachers to positively impact the student-level factors that impact student achievement; · consider how the move toward a global economy impacts education and your classroom instruction; · identify existing or desirable indicators of shared leadership in your school and community; · critically reflect on the readings and learning activities to write a synopsis paper outlining how the school effectiveness and reform factors addressed in this lesson impact your school, your personal teaching practice and your students. Reading Assignment Reading Assignment Read the following chapter in your text, Foundations of Education by Allan C. Ornstein & Daniel U. Levine: Chapter 16, pages 474-514, "School Effectiveness & Reform in the United States," (41 pp.); · Access the VT library subscription to NetLibrary (click here for instructions on accessing NetLibrary) and read the following sections of of Marzano's What works in schools: Translating research Into action (approximately 43 pages) : Chapter 1 - "Introducing the Best of Times" - pages 1-11 Chapter 2 - "The School-Level Factors" - pages 15-21 Chapter 8 - "The Teacher-Level Factors" - pages 71-77 Chapter 12 - "The Student-Level Factors" - pages 123-125 Chapter 16 - "Implementing the Model" - pages 157-159 Appendix - "Snapshot Survey of School Effectiveness Factors" - pages 179-186 · There are a few articles to read that are linked from the screens of this online lesson. · In addition, be sure to save the lesson 8 assignment worksheet to your desktop as [yourPID]_edfdns8.doc and familiarize yourself with the questions and assignment requirements. After you have read the text selections, proceed to the next screen to view the lesson content, activities and assignments.

Lesson Discussion
As discussed on the introductory screen for this lesson, the range of reforms implemented in American education is very broad. Your readings for this lesson will highlight some of these reforms and then you will be required to do some additional research on the topic for your Lesson 8 assignment.
School Effectiveness
What does it mean to be an effective teacher working in an effective school? Most definitions of effectiveness relate to the successful nurturing of student academic achievement. An analysis of 35 years of educational research revealed three sets of factors that affect student academic achievement. Marzano (2003) identified school-level factors, teacher-level factors, and student-level factors that impact student achievement (as listed in the table below). Marzano’s research (2003) indicates that if a school isn’t judged effective, attention to these factors would be a good place to start reform efforts. [Note that the teacher-level factor of classroom curriculum design is addressed in a later lesson of this course, and the remaining teacher-level factors are covered in other ALPS courses.]
Level Factor Affecting Student Achievement
1. Guaranteed and viable curriculum
2. Challenging goals and effective feedback
3. Parent and community involvement
4. Safe & orderly environment
5. Collegiality and professionalism
6. Instructional strategies
7. Classroom management
8. Classroom curriculum design
9. Home atmosphere
10. Learned intelligence and background knowledge
11. Motivation
It is interesting to note that the student-level factors (as opposed to school- or teacher-related factors) account for 80% of the variance in student achievement (Marzano, 2003); but there are things that teachers and schools can do to address the student-level factors. The learning activities for this lesson will address this topic, and you may choose this topic for your Lesson 8 assignment.
Shared Leadership
The research shows that highly successful educational leaders are those who develop and rely upon the leadership contributions of teachers, parents, and the school community (Leithwood, et. al., 2004). As a result, shared models of leadership have become a key component in recent efforts to reform schools and enhance student performance. The role of the school administrator is expanding and it is no longer feasible for one person to serve as instructional leader for a school community without substantial support from others (Elmore, 2000). The traditional, top-down approach to leadership is being replaced in many schools by one that takes advantage of the extraordinary leadership capabilities of teachers, and emphasizes that educating our students should be a collaborative community undertaking.
What does shared leadership look like in a school? How does shared leadership change the way decisions are made about instruction and administrative in schools? Consider these topics and questions designed to help you identify how shared leadership might be implemented:
Open communication
· Does the school have open communication among administrators, teachers, students, parents, and community members?
· Do you see evidence of open communication in the school, such as suggestion boxes, newsletters, email networks, or homework hotlines?
· Are meetings characterized by mutual respect?
· Do meetings have advance agendas and follow-up minutes?
Teacher/staff leadership
· Do teachers have genuine opportunities to develop and practice leadership?
· Does the school offer teacher-led staff development?
· Do teacher-led committees have real responsibility and authority?
· Is there a functioning leadership team or advisory committee?
Internal collaboration
· Does the school have ongoing study groups, interdisciplinary planning and projects, thematic units across subjects or grades, team meetings, and team teaching?
· Are new teachers mentored and are all teachers coached and nurtured?
· Do teachers meet regularly to discuss student data and instructional improvement?
· Do teachers have the authority, responsibility, and expectation to adjust procedures for the best interest of the students?
Student leadership
· Are there opportunities for student council meetings, peer tutoring, student focus groups, cooperative learning groups, or student announcements?
· Is there a sense of democracy in the classrooms, with students free to ask questions and express alternative views?
· Does the school teach leadership skills?
Parent and community involvement
· Does the school have one or more active parent groups?
· Is there a volunteer program, and does the school maintain an active parent resource file?
· Does the school invite parent input into critical decisions?
· Does a parent sit on the leadership team?
(From Edvantia, 2005, Improving Schools: The Value of Shared Leadership, page 12)
How can you use shared leadership to improve the quality of your own instruction? The learning activities will address these and other questions about shared leadership.
Global Education
America is a highly individualistic society, but with the move toward a more global economy, the frequency of global conflicts, increased career mobility and the technological advances in communication in today's world, we can no longer consider our lives in isolation from other countries. Our students must learn how to consider the political, social, economic, and environmental facets and impacts of their day-to-day decisions and activities. The work world increasingly requires cultural understanding and the ability to consider global and future events. Accomplishing a world-class curriculum requires that educators evaluate their instruction from multiple perspectives. How can you incorporate global education into your classroom to prepare your students for life in a global economy and community? What teaching strategies work best for global education? What national and state standards and frameworks address global education?
Individualism versus Collectivism
Our U.S. culture is highly individualistic, whereas many other cultures value Collectivism. In a highly Individualistic culture, the following tendencies are very strong (these may not all be reflected in American culture):
· Individual achievement is the basis for social standing.
· There are laws protecting individual rights.
· People are expected to act on their own behalf.
· Individuals can have unpopular opinions.
· Individualized decision making is preferred to consensus decision making.
· Social philosophies focus on universal principles not on social particulars.
· Loyalty to an employer is not expected; pay for performance is expected.
· People seek variety and interest in work.
In a highly Collectivist culture, the following tendencies are very strong:
· Attributes such as birth, ethnicity, and gender are the basis for social standing.
· Laws protect group and community interests.
· People are expected to defer to the interests of the group.
· Individuals cannot express unpopular opinions without risk of disapproval.
· Consensus decision making is preferred; individualism is dangerous.
· Social philosophies focus on privileges and prerogatives, not on universal principles.
· Loyalty to the employer is expected; performance is secondary.
Now consider whether and how you think American individualism impacts American education (you will be asked to comment on this for the Lesson 8 assignment). Read the following summary of Jared Bernstein's thoughts on individualism in his book, All together now: Common sense for a fair economy (2006):
Jared Bernstein recalls an allegory that in heaven and hell, meals are served at a huge round table with lots of delicious food in the center. The food is out of reach, but everyone’s got really long forks. In hell, everyone starves because, while people can reach the food with their forks, the forks are much longer than their arms, so nobody can turn a fork around and eat what’s on the end of it. In heaven, faced with the same problem, people eat well. How? By feeding each other.
Protecting the rights of individuals has always been a core American value. Yet in recent years the emphasis on individualism has been pushed to the point where, like the diners in hell, we're starving. This political and social philosophy is hurting our nation, endangering our future and that of our children, and, paradoxically, making it harder for individuals to get a fair shot at the American dream. This extreme individualism dominates the way we talk about the most important aspects of our economic lives, those that reside in the intersection of our living standards, our government, and the future opportunities for ourselves and our children.
The message, sometimes implicit but often explicit, is, “you're on your own.” Its acronym, YOYO, provides a useful shorthand to summarize this destructive approach to governing. One central goal of the YOYO movement is to continue and even accelerate the trend toward shifting economic risks from the government and the nation’s corporations onto individuals and their families.
We need an alternative vision, one that applauds individual freedom but emphasizes that such freedom is best realized with a more collaborative approach to meeting the challenges we face. The message is simple: “We're in this together.” Here, the acronym is WITT. At the heart of the WITT agenda is the belief that we can wield the tools of government to build a more just society, one that preserves individualist values while ensuring that the prosperity we generate is equitably shared.
(2006), Jared Bernstein, Ph.D. Social Welfare, Columbia University, member of the Economic Policy Institute. (To read the full text, paste this URL into your browser:
http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/books_all_together_now#introduction )
Learning Activities:
For the Lesson 8 assignment, you will be asked to research one of the above topics: school effectiveness factors, shared leadership or global education. The learning activities for this lesson give you an overview of each topic so you can make your decision on which one you would like to research. For each topic, additional resources are located in the "Where Can I Find Out More?" section of this lesson (Screen 3) and on the Lesson 8 assignment worksheet. Take a moment now, before tackling the learning activities, to access the worksheet and review your options for the Lesson 8 assignment.
As always, as you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.

*** Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 8 assignment. ***
1. Control of Education - Consider the attached scenario suggested by Joel Spring (2006) concerning the “fundamental question about who or what agency should control the education of America’s children” (p. 155-56). Note the questions Spring raises at the end of the scenario, and reflect on them as you select a topic to research for the Lesson 8 assignment.
2. Reform - In addition to the chapter 16 of your text and the eBook selections listed on Screen 1 of this lesson, you should read the following articles. They will provide another perspective to consider on educational reform:
Berliner (2005), “Our impoverished view of educational reform.” Available from: http://www.tcrecord.org (24 pages) For this article, consider:
o Outside of classrooms and schools, what factors affect schooling and constrain educational reform?
o Is poverty a relevant factor in students’ academic performance?
o Is poverty in the U.S. significantly different from poverty in other industrialized nations?
o Would reductions in family poverty improve national schooling achievement? If so, how should issues of poverty in the U.S. inform educational policy and reform?
Debate on the purposes of public schooling. Hess, et al, (2004). Phi Delta Kappan. For this article, consider:
· What is the role of public schooling in a democracy?
· Is it good, bad or both when the interests of the middle class and businesses direct educational policy?
· Which ‘public’ is best served by public schooling?
· How are issues regarding representation in educational decision-making processes and policy practices related to those of educational equity?
Note: when you write your Lesson 8 assignment paper, you should consider whether or not the views expressed in your text or in the articles above factor into your views on the educational reform you chose, and why or why not. Be sure to cite the sources, as appropriate.
3. Global Education - Read the following article on global education, saving your impressions for the Lesson 8 assignment:

Smith, A.F. (2002) How global is the curriculum? Educational Leadership, 60(2), 38-41.
4. For-Profit, Public Education - View the 56-minute video on the history of American education entitled "Public Schools, Inc." (2003) produced by the Merrow Report and available at the Annenberg Foundation website (scroll down to #53, “Public Schools, Inc.”):
http://www.learner.org/resources/series99.html?pop=yes&vodid=388801&pid=1098#
As you view the video, think about the positions presented:
· Can for-profit schools better serve students and communities than public schools?
· Have educational reforms in public schooling been used to create market opportunities? If so, how?
· Are corporate interests overrepresented in educational policy and in the external private expertise used to develop these policies?
· What can teachers, administrators, and communities do to work toward more equitable, educationally-driven reform and policy initiatives?
· Who are the stakeholders involved in the problem and the solution and who seems to benefit or lose?
o How does the situation impact classroom instruction and how might it impact your practice or philosophy of education?
Contemplating & Applying This Lesson:
Re-consider the focus questions from the beginning of this lesson to prepare yourself for the Lesson 8 assignment:
· What sort of factors impact school effectiveness?
· What are the advantages and disadvantages of various educational reforms for improving the effectiveness of American education?
· How can multiple communities and stakeholders with competing interests come together as active participants in making decisions about school policy and reform? How can they “share leadership?”
· How does the move toward a global economy impact the goals and implementation of education?
Reflect on how the answers to the questions above impact your own personal philosophy of education and how that, in turn, impacts your teaching. You will use these thoughts to complete the Lesson 8 assessment.
Check Your Understanding
To ensure that you understand the concepts discussed in the lesson and can complete the Lesson 8 assignment, take the self-tests for chapter 16, available at:
http://www.college.hmco.com/education/ornstein/foundations/9e/students/ace/index.html
Where can I find out more?
The learning activities for this lesson require you to do some research for your paper on a source of educational inequity that impacts your teaching practice. You may find the following web sites helpful in doing your research.
Resources for School Effectiveness: In addition to the portions of the Marzano eBook required for this lesson, you may also want to read the Summaries or more from the remaining chapters of the book: summaries for chapters 3-7 are located on pages 34, 46, 52, 59, and 67; summaries for chapters 9-11 are located on pages 87, 105, and 120; and summaries for chapters 13-15 are located on pages 132, 143, and 152-153 of the book. In reading the summaries, take note of the action steps recommended by Marzano and if they are not clear to you, go back into the chapter for an explanation. You may also want to check out articles on "best practice teaching," including works by: Daniels & Bizar (2005). Teaching the Best Practice Way, Methods that Matter K-12. Zemelman, Daniels, & Hyde, (1998). Best Practice: New Standards for Teaching and Learning in America's Schools. Marzano, Pickering & Pollock (2001). Classroom Instruction that Works. (this one is available as an eBook through VT's NetLibrary subscription) In addition, the Institute of Education Sciences at the U.S. Department of Education has established the What Works Clearinghouse as a resource for educators, policymakers, and members of the public who are looking for scientifically-based evidence of what works in education. The clearinghouse lists standards for reviewing and synthesizing educational research and houses a searchable database on its Web site: http://www.Whatworks.ed.gov/
Resources for Shared Leadership: The National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) produced a research-based standards guide that identifies six characteristics of instructional leadership to help principals reflect on and improve their practice. “Leading Learning Communities: NAESP Standards for What Principals Should Know and Be Able to Do" (2001): http://www.naesp.org You may also want to check out these articles: “Professional Learning Communities: An Ongoing Exploration” (Morrissey, 2000) http://www.sedl.org/pubs/change45/plc-ongoing.pdf “Professional Learning Communities: What Are They and Why Are They Important?” (Hord, 1997) http://www.sedl.org/change/issues/issues61.html “Group Wise: Create a Culture of Inquiry and Develop Productive Groups” (Garmston, 2005) http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/jsd/garmston262.cfm “Seven Keys in Cultivating Principals and Teacher Leaders” (Ballek, O’Rourke, Provenzano, & Bellamy, 2005) http://www.nsdc.org/members/jsd/ballek262.pdf “At Issue, The Principal: Ten Steps to Success” (Brewer, 2001) http://www.nsdc.org/members/jsd/brewer221.pdf Leithwood, K., Seashore Louis, K., Anderson, S. & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). How leadership influences student learning. New York: Wallace Foundation. Retrieved September 30, 2005, from http://www.wallacefoundation.org/WF/KnowledgeCenter/KnowledgeTopics/ EducationLeadership/HowLeadershipInfluencesStudentLearning.htm Shared Leadership
Resources for School Privatization: Christman, J.B., Gold, E. & Herold, B. (2006). Privatization "Philly style." What can be learned from Philadelphia's diverse provider model of school management? Philadelphia: Research for Action Miron, G., & Applegate, B. (2000). An evaluation of student achievement in Edison schools opened in 1995 and 1996. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University for NEA. PBS Frontline discussions about Edison Schools, a for-profit school - http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/edison/talk/ Pennsylvania governor hires Edison - http://www.pww.org/past-weeks-2001/Pennsylvania%20governor%20hires%20Edison%20Schools.htm (2006) Drop in scores in Edison schools - http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/local/bal-te.md.edison13jul13,0,3280359.story?coll=bal-pe-asection Recent Job Ad for Edison Schools: http://www.smartbrief.com/jobs/ascd/job_detail.jsp?id=1899&lmcid=1934023 School Privatization
Resources for Global Education: Chapter 15 of your text, "International Education," pages 448-473, provides an overview of the subject. Bacon, N.A. & Kischner, G.A. (2002). Shaping global classrooms. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 48-51. Dunn, R.E. (2002). Growing good citizens with a world-centered curriculum. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 10-14. Holloway, J.H. (2003). A global perspective on student accountability. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 74, 76. Howard, E.R. (2002). Two-way immersion. A key to global awareness. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 62-64. Marshall, H. (2007). Global education in perspective: Fostering a global dimension in an English secondary school. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(3), 355-374. Merryfield, M.M. (2002). The difference a global educator can make. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 18-21. Merryfield, M.M. (2007). The web and teachers' decision-making in global education. Theory & Research in Social Education, 35(2), 256-276. Merryfield, M.M., & Kasai, M. (2004). How are teachers responding to globalization? Social Education, 68(5), 354-. Singh, N. (2002). Becoming international. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 56-60. Suarez-Orozco, M.M., & Sattin, C. (2007). Wanted: Global citizens. Educational Leadership, 64(7), 58-62.

Lesson 8 Assessment:
For this lesson assignment you will reflect on the readings and learning activities to answer questions concerning the lesson content and to complete a four-page, double-spaced paper on your choice of educational reforms. Specifically, you will:
1. Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 8 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns8.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns8.doc). You are to write your paper in the worksheet document, following the instructions which provide questions to answer, choices of reform topics, and details on the content of the paper. Use the rubric provided below to guide your efforts and be sure to check your paper for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure. Cite sources and include your references.
2. Submit Assignment Worksheet Paper for Grade - Your worksheet/paper should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 8 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name:
[yourPID]_edfdns8.doc
Expectations: (40 total points possible)
Your paper will be graded according to the following rubric:
Synopsis Paper Criteria Points Possible Standard for Full Credit
Questions on Lesson Topics 10 Used a paragraph to answer each question, Participant substantiated any opinions with information and citations from the lesson, articles and/or websites. Questions are worth 2 points each.
Educational Reform Paper: Description 5 For the educational reform chosen, provided a description of the reform, the problem it was designed to address, and why participant chose it. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites.
Educational Reform Paper: Advantages & Disadvantages, Successes &/or Failures 5 For the educational reform chosen, provided a thoughtful list of the advantages and disadvantages and successes and failures of the reform. Participant substantiated any opinions with information from the lesson, articles and/or websites.
Educational Reform Paper: Impact on Teaching Practice & Philosophy 10 Described how the reform topic relates to your teaching practice and how it impacts your teaching philosophy
Educational Reform Paper: Impact of Lesson Readings 5 Indicated whether views on educational reform that were expressed in the text or in the articles assigned factored into participant's opinion on this reform topic, and why or why not.
Writing mechanics 5 Paper is four-to-five double-spaced pages long (1 point), writing is logical and clear (1), and uses proper grammar and correct spelling (1), uses proper APA format for in-text citations (1) and end-of-paper references (1).
Discussion Board Posts & Replies 5 Posted bulleted lists for each section of paper to the course discussion board by Thursday midnight & provided substantive and respectful replies to at least two peer postings by Saturday midnight.
Total Points Awarded/ Total Points Possible /40 Comments:
~~~ Continue to Screen 5 to access the Lesson 8 references. ~~~
Lesson 8 References:
Bacchetti, R. (2004). An ongoing conversation. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(6), 446-447.
Berliner, D.C. (2005). Our impoverished view of educational reform. Teachers College Record. Date Accessed: 1/1/2006 from http://www.tcrecord.org
Christman, J.B., Gold, E. & Herold, B. (2006). Privatization "Philly style." What can be learned from Philadelphia's diverse provider model of school management? Philadelphia: Research for Action.
Clinchy, E. (2004). Reimaging public education. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(6), 448-450.
Elmore, R. (2000). Building a New Structure for School Leadership. Washington.
Hess, F.M. (2004). What is a 'public school?' Principles for a new century. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(6), 433-439.
Nathan, J. (2004). Some questions for advocates of public education. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(6), 442-450.
Miron, G., & Applegate, B. (2000). An evaluation of student achievement in Edison schools opened in 1995 and 1996. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University for NEA.
Nathan, L. (2004). The larger purpose of public schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(6), 440-441.
Oakes, J., & Rogers, J. (2006). Learning power: Organizing for education and justice. NY: Teachers College Press.
Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Smith, A.F. (2002). How global is the curriculum? Educational Leadership, 60(2), 38-41.
Spring, J. (2006). American Education. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill, pp 155-251.
Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1997). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. MA: Harvard University Press.

Lesson 9 — Designing Instruction
You can access different parts of Lesson 9 by clicking on the links below.

Designing Instruction
Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment
Lesson Content & Learning Activities (1)
Lesson Content & Learning Activities (2)
Lesson Content & Learning Activities (3)
Lesson Content & Learning Activities (4)
Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?
Assessment: Lesson 9 Assignment
Lesson References
Instructional Design
Good instructional design is foundational to effective education.&nbsp; As reported in a previous lesson, curriculum design is one of three, teacher-level factors that impact student achievement (Marzano, 2003).&nbsp; The way you design what to cover in your instruction, how to cover it, and how to assess your students on it, can mean the difference between student success and failure.&nbsp; Differentiating your instruction to meet the needs of different types of learners is also essential to improving student achievement.&nbsp; Finally, collecting and analyzing data about your learners, their learning progress and the success of your instruction is an important skill to develop to enable you to design and delivery effective instruction.
In this lesson and the next two lessons, you will learn more about how you can design effective instruction that facilitates learning success, and how to collect and analyze data to determine how your students are doing and how to adjust your instruction to help them in their efforts.&nbsp; This lesson will focus on the challenges facing teachers today, the elements involved in effective instructional planning, and how to decide what to teach.&nbsp; Consider the following questions to prepare yourself&nbsp; for the lesson content:
· How do I decide what goes into a lesson or learning activity?
· How do today's learners differ from previous generations of learners?
· What is "scientifically-based research" and what does it have to do with me?
· What resources are available to help me design and plan my instruction?
· What standards, if any, do I follow in designing my instruction?
· Which Standards of Learning (SOLs) represent critical knowledge and skills for my students? What are the essential questions that can be gleaned from my content?
· What does it mean to "unpack" standards?
Lesson Objectives:

Upon completion of this lesson, you will ...
· develop an appreciation for the value of systematic instructional planning;
· gain an awareness of the ways in which today's students differ from previous generations of learners, and the challenge this poses to teachers;
· gain an appreciation for the value of scientifically-based research on teaching and learning to your classroom practice;
· become familiar with the terms: curriculum, instructional design, curriculum alignment, curricular balance, stakeholders, standards of learning, Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), accountability, relevance, essential knowledge and skills, essential questions, Virginia benchmark targets, unpacking standards, and Bloom's taxonomy of thinking skills;
· reflect on your content, the applicable Standards of Learning, and the "essential questions" or "Big Ideas" your students should know;
· identify the thinking skills from Bloom's taxonomy needed by your students to effectively master some of the standards identified for your content; and
· explore some of the web resources available to help you in planning instruction;
all of which will enable you to...
· synthesize your learning in this lesson to complete an assignment worksheet that prompts you to create a unit plan based on your content and the applicable standards.
Instructions
You have several articles to read as well as some lesson screen content, and some web sites to explore for this lesson. One week has been allotted to allow you time to complete the readings and assignment. To proceed with this lesson, do the following:
1. Read and reflect on the focus questions and learning objectives, above, to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson.
2. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:
[yourPID]_edfdns9.doc
3. Read screens 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 of this online lesson and complete the readings and learning activities described.
4. Complete your copy of the assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen.
After you have read the screen content and readings, and completed the activities, proceed to the next screen to view the lesson content, activities and assignments.
Systematic Instructional Planning

With good reason, we are living at a time referred to as the "Information Age." An explosion of knowledge and public pressure to maintain a competitive edge for the American economy has left educators with a dizzying array of subjects, topics, and standards that must, supposedly, be taught. As you read earlier, the fact that today’s learners exhibit quite different characteristics from those of learners just a few years ago, serves to add to the complexity of the situation.&nbsp; How do you decide what and how to teach, what to spend more time on, and what to do about the students who are bored and those who are falling behind?&nbsp;
One way to tackle the dilemma is to use a systematic process for designing instruction.&nbsp; With systematically-designed instruction, you tell your students what they should know through the learning objectives, teach them using strategies that will facilitate that learning, and assess (test) them on the same information contained in the objectives. This is what is known as aligned instruction. The outcomes, instruction, and assessment all align, or "match up" and they are therefore more effective in improving student achievement. Students know what to expect and they know your expectations.
Instructional design can be thought of as the process used to design the curriculum and the individual lessons or courses that make up the curriculum. It involves selecting the learner objectives or outcomes and developing instructional activities to engage the learners in acquiring those outcomes.&nbsp; ID has been defined in many different ways and there are many different models that are used to carry out the design process.&nbsp;
A standard systematic instructional design model such as the ADDIE model can provide a tool for designing systematically. The model reminds the classroom instructor to analyze their learners' needs, the demands of the content and standards, and the learning context; design learning outcomes, instruction and assessments that meet the needs of the learners; develop instruction to the design specifications; implement the instruction with reflection to consider whether it is effective; and evaluate the success of the instruction to determine what might need to change to make it more effective.

Note in the illustration above that ADDIE is an iterative process. That means that the stages are not necessarily linear. You may analyze and assess your students' needs, design and develop instruction to meet those needs, and then implement, only to find that as you evaluate the success of your instruction, you must revisit the analysis again because the students aren't mastering the material. Or you may have to take over a class in the middle of the year, in the implementation stage of the model, and have to revisit design because the previous teacher left abruptly before the year was totally planned.
Note, also, that the evaluation stage of the model represents evaluation of your instruction, not of the students. Your students' progress should be assessed frequently during the course of instruction as well as at the end of the instruction. Ideally, the assessments should be developed at the same time as the learning objectives. Objectives and assessments are developed prior to designing the instruction itself so that the latter is developed to meet both the needs of the learners and the demands of the assessments. Since assessment is such a big part of instruction, it pays to take time to consider how and when you will conduct assessments.
Learning Activities: As always, as you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.

*** Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 9 assignment. ***
1. Introduction to Instructional Design - Read the following articles by Kevin Kruse:

http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art2_1.htm

http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_4.htm

What methods described in the article do you already use? Which do you think you would like to adopt for instructional planning? What thoughts do you have on systematic instructional design? Do you develop learning objectives for your instruction? If so, how do you go about the process? If not, why not?
Lesson 9 - Designing Instruction

What does research have to do with curriculum (or with me)??

Many teachers enter the classroom armed with strategies to use and content to teach. Some give little thought to why the curriculum includes certain topics and why the strategies are recommended. In the best scenario, the curriculum and strategies are informed by educational research. Research plays a vital role in shaping educational practice, and in identifying effective instructional strategies that have been successful. Take a moment to consider your past experience with educational research. Have you used research findings in the past? If so, were your experiences positive or did you feel that your use of research was a waste of time? Were you able to obtain suggestions for practical strategies from research? Where do you obtain the research you used?

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) stresses the importance of using scientifically-based research to validate school practice. The criteria listed in NCLB are referred to as the gold standard for research used to justify instructional materials and methods that claim to positively impact student achievement. The criteria outlined by NCLB specify the type of research designs, data analysis, and research review processes that qualify as scientifically-based. Scientifically-based research results are valuable because they provide educators with methods and materials that are likely to be effective in positively impacting student achievement. When you read research results that recommend certain educational practices, you should view those results with a critical eye, asking questions that will enable you to evaluate the quality of the research. For example, consider:
· Does the research clearly indicate that the instructional materials or strategies advocated will work for learners, content, and contexts like those I am working with?
· What is the nature of the evidence reported?
· If the results claim to be research-based, how rigorously was the research conducted?
More specifically, scientifically-based research refers to research that involves:
· the use of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain knowledge relevant to educational practices,
· systematic, empirical methods,
· controlled observation or experimentation,
· rigorous data analysis,
· evaluation by experimental or quasi-experimental research designs in which individuals, entities, programs, or activities are assigned to different conditions or treatments (preferably randomly) in a controlled manner,
· sufficient detail that the study can be replicated or the findings built upon by others, and
· publication in a peer-reviewed journal, or approved by a panel of independent experts through rigorous scientific review.
So what does all this mean? In a practical way, what does scientifically-based research look like? Let's take one of those phrases above to look at a little closer. Most of us are familiar with the word "experiment," but the term "quasi-experimental" is not something you hear every day on the news or in the grocery store. Scientifically-based research uses experiments with treatment groups and control groups. For example, if researchers want to test the effectiveness of an instructional strategy using an experiment or quasi-experiment, they must use a control group to compare the effects of that strategy. They will "treat" a group of students by teaching them with the strategy, and they will teach a "control" group of students the same content using their regular instructional method. This is true for both experimental and quasi-experimental studies. If the research is to be a true experimental study, it must also include random selection of the students and/or random assignment of students to treatment and control groups.

In any research carried out on humans and in social situations, there are many variables that cannot be controlled. Humans are hard to control! (For example, you've probably had at least one child in a class who consistently asks why they have to do the task that you've assigned.) Due to the number of un-controllable variables, quality scientifically-based research is harder to find in the field of education and other social sciences than in the pure sciences.
Say, for example, that you teach mathematics and want to know if field experiences with problem-based learning will increase your students' test scores. You decide that one of your classes will serve as a control group and the other two classes you teach will participate in two real-world, problem-based activities over the course of the year. If you have enough students and classes to randomly assign students to the treatment and control groups, you will have set up an experiment. However, how many math teachers teach three sections of the same content? And if you were planning to go off-site to enhance the reality of the problem-based activities, how do you account for the differences in amount of content presented when you have to allow time to go to the problem site? How do you randomly assign students when there are students who must be assigned to certain classes due to the rest of their schedule? How do you set up the experiment so that the results are transferable to math classes in other schools in the district or in your state?
You can see that there are reasons that scientifically-based research is hard to conduct when you are dealing with complex human beings. Therefore, you must become a "discriminating consumer" when you read about recommended curriculum and strategies, and you must evaluate the research to see if it has been carefully conducted and if it applies to your specific instructional situation.
How to Judge the Research

There are a few things you can do to ensure that the research you read and use is well-grounded and reliable:
1. Look at where the research is published. Is it published in a peer-reviewed journal (articles are published only after a rigorous review by an independent scholar in the educational field)? Is it labeled as scientifically-based research and available on an official U.S. Department of Education or professional educational organization website?
2. Look at the evidence and the conclusions. Is the evidence conclusive? Are the results significant? Do the researchers justify their conclusions? Do the researchers make recommendations that represent the ideal but do not consider issues of cost, what is practically achievable, or the interaction of other priorities and possible unintended consequences?
3. Look at the educational situation. Is the educational situation similar to your own? Are the characteristics of the learners in the research study (age, grade, abilities, interests, background knowledge) similar to your students? Is the context of the study similar to your situation?
Learning Activities:
As you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.

*** Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 9 assignment. ***
1. Research Applied in the Classroom - Read the Nov. 1, 2005 article from the Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement on using scientifically-based research in instruction, available at:
http://www.centerforcsri.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=204&Itemid=5
From this reading, what possibilities do you see for incorporating research into your classroom in a practical, useful way? Save your thoughts for the Lesson 9 assignment.
2. Access the eBook What Works in Schools: Translating Research into Action by Robert Marzano, and read chapter 3, (A Guaranteed and Viable Curriculum), pages 22-34 (13 pp). In this chapter, Marzano talks about one of the school-level factors that has been shown by research to impact student achievement. You can access this eBook through Virginia Tech's NetLibrary subscription.

Click here for instructions on accessing eBooks.

From the Marzano eBook reading, given that Virginia does not distinguish between the SOLs, requiring that all of the SOLs be covered, which of Marzano's action steps do you feel equipped to tackle and which do you feel are not in your control? Provide reasons for your impressions for each action step. Save your work for the Lesson 9 assignment.

Lesson 9 - Designing Instruction

Contemplating & Applying This Lesson:
Re-consider the focus questions from the beginning of this lesson to prepare yourself for the Lesson 9 assignment:
· How do I decide what goes into a lesson or learning activity?
· How do today's learners differ from previous generations of learners?
· What is "scientifically-based research" and what does it have to do with me?
· What resources are available to help me design and plan my instruction?
· What standards, if any, do I follow in designing my instruction?
· Which Standards of Learning (SOLs) represent critical knowledge and skills for my students? What are the essential questions that can be gleaned from my content?
· What does it mean to "unpack" standards?
Reflect on how the answers to the questions above impact your own personal philosophy of education and how that, in turn, impacts your teaching. You will use these thoughts to complete the Lesson 9 assessment.
Where can I find out more? The learning activities for this lesson require you to do some research for your paper on a source of educational inequity that impacts your teaching practice. You may find the following web sites helpful in doing your research.
The full text of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation is available online at:
· No Child Left Behind http://www.nclb.gov
· PL 107-110, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 http://www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA02/
· Title IX, Part A, Section 9101. Definitions http://www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA02/pg107.html#sec9101

The Institute of Education Sciences at the U.S. Department of Education has established the What Works Clearinghouse as a resource for educators, policymakers, and members of the public who are looking for scientifically-based evidence of what works in education. The clearinghouse lists standards for reviewing and synthesizing educational research and houses a searchable database on its Web site:
http://www.Whatworks.ed.gov/

The Center for Applied Research in Educational Technology - CARET is an organization that provides research results applicable to educational practice through a question and answer format, though a searchable database, and through an alert system that allows you to create a customizable profile so that you will automatically be informed of research results pertaining to your areas of interest. CARET resources can be accessed at: http://caret.iste.org/

Virginia Tech’s Educational Technologies department’s Design Shop is a helpful resource for all aspects of designing and delivering instruction:

http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/ &nbsp;

The Virginia Department of Education website provides a wide variety of resources that are available to teachers to help them determine what to teach:
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/

The Virginia Report Card for 2006 can be viewed at:

http://www.doe.virginia.gov/VDOE/NewHome/pressreleases/2006/aug31.html

Through Virginia Tech - Through your enrollment in Virginia Tech, you have access to several databases that provide links to copies of professional journal articles, books on teaching methods, and online eBooks (available through Virginia Tech's subscription to NetLibrary). You can access these materials by going in person to the VT Newman library, or by accessing the library website at:

http://www.lib.vt.edu

At Your School - Educational institutions vary widely in their access to research resources. Some schools subscribe to maintain back issues of teaching journals, some have the latest research books on teaching methods, and still others subscribe to research database services.

Internet - Of course, you can always conduct a web search using "Google Scholar" (http://scholar.google.com/) or the clustered search engine "Clusty" (http://clusty.com/), to locate a wide variety of white papers, research articles, and research reports that review scientifically-based studies on instructional methods and materials. For example, conducting a web search using the phrases:
"research-based" + "best practices" + "teaching strategies" + K-12 + [your subject discipline]
will yield thousands of 'hits' that may be helpful to you. (Be sure to use quotes around your search phrases to ensure that you obtain the results you desire.)

~~~ Continue to Screen 7 for the lesson assessment. ~~~
Lesson 9 Assessment:
For this lesson assignment you will reflect on the readings and learning activities to answer questions concerning the lesson content, completing an assignment worksheet on instructional design. Specifically, you will:
1. Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 9 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns9.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns9.doc). Answer the questions as completely as possible, using the rubric provided below to guide your efforts. Be sure to check your paper for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure, and cite your sources.
2. Submit Assignment Worksheet Paper for Grade - Your worksheet should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 9 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name:
[yourPID]_edfdns9.doc
Expectations: (40 total points possible)
Your assignment worksheet will be graded according to the following rubric:

Worksheet Criteria Points Possible Standard for Full Credit
Today's Learners 5 Used two to three paragraphs to list the characteristics of the Net Generation that impact instruction, and participant's observations of these characteristics and how they impact or could impact their teaching. Indicated the subject area and grade level that participant teaches or intends to teach.
Data Driven Differentiation 5 Used one paragraph to describe the ideas on connecting data to learning that participant gleaned from the Gregory/Kuzmich reading.
Instructional Design 5 Used two double-spaced paragraphs to address the questions on the instructional design and objective readings.
SOL Pass Rates 5 Used a paragraph to address how SOL pass rates impact or could impact participant's students and professional practice.
Essential Questions 5 Listed five essential questions relating to participant's content and level taught.
Scenario 5 Used one or two paragraphs to describe how participant would address the scenario questions presented on Screen 4 of the lesson.
Applying Research in the Classroom 5 Used one or two paragraphs to address the possibilities for incorporating research into classroom in a practical, useful way.
Guaranteed & Viable Curriculum 5 Used two or three paragraphs to provide reasons for participant's impressions on his or her ability to address the action steps for a guaranteed and viable curriculum provided in the Marzano eBook reading.
Total Points Awarded/
Total Points Possible /40 Comments:
~~~ Continue to Screen 8 to access the Lesson 9 references. ~~~
Lesson 9 References:
Covey, F. (19990). The 7 habits of highly effective people.
Drake, S. & Burns, R. (2004). Meeting standards through integrated curriculum. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Gregory, G.H., & Kuzmich, L. (2004). Data driven differentiation in the standards-based classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Marzano, R.J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R.J., Kendall, J.S., & Gaddy, B.B. (1999). Essential Knowledge: The Debate over What American Students Should Know.&nbsp; Aurora, CO: McREL.
Ornstein, A.C., & Levine, D.U. (2006). Foundations of Education (9th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Pohl, M. (2000). Learning to think, thinking to learn: Models and strategies to develop a classroom culture of thinking. Cheltenham, Vic.: Hawker Brownlow..
Prensky, M. (2001, October). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon, NCB University Press, 9(5).
Prensky, M. (2001, December). Do They Really Think Differently? On the Horizon, NCB University Press, 9(6).
~~~ You are now ready for Lesson 10 of this course. ~~~

Lesson 10 — Instructional Design Based on Assessment Data I
You can access different parts of Lesson 10 by clicking on the links below.

Lesson Objectives, Reading Assignment
Discussion and Learning Activities - Screen 1
Discussion and Learning Activities - Screen 2
Discussion and Learning Activities - Screen 3
Discussion and Learning Activities - Screen 4
Applying this Lesson to the Classroom & Where can I find out more?
Assessment: Lesson 10 Assignment
Lesson References

Lesson 10 - Instructional Design Based on Assessment Data I
Screen 1 of 8 <Previous> <Next>

Focus Questions
· How can I write instructional objectives that accurately convey the learning outcomes that my students must achieve?
· How do I determine what my students already know and how does that impact my instruction?
· What type of student performance measures are available to me, to help me identify my students' learning needs and abilities?
· How can I design assessments that accurately test my students' knowledge and mastery of the learning objectives?
· How can I use student data to design instruction that meets my students' needs?
Effective Instructional Design Based on Data
In the previous lessons, you reviewed the terminology dealing with curriculum and instruction, including terms such as Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), curriculum alignment, standards of learning, and instructional design. You looked at how to "unpack" the standards and content to come up with the knowledge or essential ideas, the skills and the attitudes that your students must retain past the end-of-course assessments. These essential skills and knowledge may be things they must know for the next course in a sequence, for college, or for a job, or they may represent life skills that they will need that are related to your content.
You also considered what sort of factors help make schools effective. Note that even world-wide educational studies have found that quality teachers are essential to the effectiveness of schools that foster student academic achievement. Barber and Mourshed (2007) produced a report for McKinsey and Company (a London-based consulting firm), that emphasizes three themes that characterize effective school systems throughout the world:
1. Getting the right people to become teachers,
2. Developing effective instructors, and
3. Ensuring that the best possible instruction is provided to enable every student to perform well (Executive Summary and Exhibit 26, p. 41).
Let's assume that you're the right person for the job and that you are working toward developing your effectiveness as an instructor. This lesson will help you ensure that every student performs to their best ability by addressing:
· how to define specific learning outcomes (the objectives of your instruction), and assessments that match those outcomes,
· the use of data from performance measures and pre-assessments to determine what your students already know,
· how to teach diagnostically by analyzing data from pre-assessments and adjusting instruction for effectiveness, and
· the use of instructional strategies that address a variety of learner characteristics, align with your objectives and build toward your assessments.
More and more, the emphasis in education is being placed on data-driven decision-making. Data-driven decision-making is a powerful tool that teachers and schools are currently using to meet the accountability mandates of No Child Left Behind and to achieve continuous school improvement. As defined by the National Education Association, data-driven decision making involves gathering data and other information on a regular basis to inform planning, decision making, and reporting activities. Beyond just gathering the data, though, it also involves analyzing that data, reporting it, using it for school improvement, and communicating it to all stakeholders (students, parents, administrators, communities, employers, etc.). On a broad, school-wide basis, such data can help:
· Measure student progress
· Make sure students don't fall through the cracks
· Measure program effectiveness
· Guide curriculum development
· Allocate resources wisely
· Promote accountability
· Report to the community
· Meet state and federal reporting requirements
· Maintain educational focus
· Show trends (but not necessarily solutions) (AASA, 2002, p. 2)
At the classroom level, data can enable the teacher to create a climate conducive to learning for all students, to track each student's progress and to customize instruction to maximize learning. This lesson and the next will provide details on how you can gather and use data to analyze and improve your students' learning.
Instructions
You have several pdf chapters to read for this lesson and some eBook chapters to scan. One week has been allotted to allow you time to complete the readings and assignment. To proceed with this lesson, do the following:
1. Read and reflect on the focus questions above;
2. Read and consider the Lesson 10 learning objectives, below, to orient and prepare yourself for the content of this lesson;
3. Save the assignment worksheet for this lesson to your desktop and read through the questions to prepare yourself to get as much as possible from the readings. Name your copy of the assignment worksheet:
[yourPID]_edfdns10.doc
4. Read screens 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 of this online lesson and complete the learning activities described;
5. Complete the lesson readings, listed below;
6. Complete your copy of the assignment worksheet and submit it for a grade using the Blackboard "Assignments" button by the date provided on the main assignments screen.
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to...
· become familiar with the meaning and usage of the terms "aligned objectives and assessments," "pre-assessments," "formative assessments," "backwards design," "multiple intelligences theory," and "learning styles;"
· distinguish between instructional objectives and learning activities;
· identify worthwhile and well-written objectives;
· identify aligned objectives and assessments;
· reflect on your content, the applicable Standards of Learning, and the essential knowledge and skills your students should possess, and develop learning objectives and assessments that reflect the learning needs of your students;
· identify the type of student performance measures available to use in assessing the current knowledge of your students;
· consider the ways in which learners differ with respect to learning styles, intelligences and background knowledge; and
· become aware of nine instructional strategies that have been shown through research to be highly effective in improving student achievement;
all of which will enable you to...
· synthesize your learning in this lesson to create a unit plan for your content using a unit planning grid.

Reading Assignment Preview
Complete the following readings, many of which are linked from the screens in this online lesson:
· You will be directed to read the following pdf chapters from the Gregory & Kuzmich (2004) book, Data Driven Differentiation in the Standards-Based Classroom:

Chapter 3 - Collecting and Using Assessment Data for Diagnostic Teaching, pages 51-76 (26 pp.).

Chapter 4 - Curriculum Approaches for Data Driven Instruction, pages 77-114 (38 pp.).
· You will be directed to read chapters 3 and 4 of the eBook Understanding by Design, pages 38-62 (25 pp.), by Wiggins & McTighe entitled "Understanding Understanding" and "The Six Facets of Understanding." (Click here for instructions on how to access eBooks through the VT library's NetLibrary subscription.)
· You will also read a few brief articles that are linked from the screens of this online lesson.
· In addition, be sure to save the lesson 10 assignment worksheet to your desktop as [yourPID]_edfdns10.doc and familiarize yourself with the questions and assignment requirements.

After you have read the text selections, proceed to the next screen to view the lesson content, activities and assignments.
Foundations of Education Lesson 10: Assignment Worksheet

For the Lesson 10 assignment, you will reflect on the lesson readings and learning activities and answer the following eight (8) questions in Part I of this worksheet, worth 20 points. Then, you will complete a unit planning grid for a portion of your content (also worth 20 points). Use good grammar and correct spelling. Use the headings provided and expand this form to fit your answers. There are 40 total points possible for this worksheet.

Part 1: Questions 1 – 8 (worth 20 points)

(2 points) Teaching to the Standards
You were to consider the Standards of Learning (SOLs) for the content and grade level that you teach or intend to teach. Use one double-spaced paragraph to address:

The measures you have taken to address the SOLs that pertain to you and your content, and
Whether your approach to tackling the SOLs changed as a result of readings and activities for this lesson. If so, how? If not, why not?

2. (2 points) Standards & NCLB
You were to read the 2003 web article, "Implementing No Child Left Behind: Virginia Revisits Educational Accountability" by K.G. Harris. Use one double-spaced paragraph to describe any new understandings about the Virginia Standards of Learning and NCLB implementation you gleaned from the web article. If you did not glean any new understandings, comment on whether you agree or disagree with the author’s position.

(3 points) Using Data To Improve Instruction & Student Achievement
You were to read an article by Decker (2003) on the use of data in instruction, entitled, “Creating a Framework to Make Data-Driven Instruction a Reality.” Use one to two double-spaced paragraphs to address the following questions (a through e):

a. Do you collect student data?
b. What strategies and tools from the article sound like something you already use or that you could use to plan more effective instruction? Do you use something different?
c. What, if anything, will you do differently or do you wish you had guidance for doing differently?
d. If you're satisfied with your current method, why?
e. If you're not currently teaching, which of the tools mentioned, or other tools, do you anticipate using?

4. (2 points) Assessing Understanding
After reading chapters 3 and 4 of the eBook Understanding by Design, what new ideas do you want to remember from the discussion of "understanding" described in these chapters? Use one double-spaced paragraph to formulate your answer:

(6 points) Aligned Objectives & Assessments
You were to complete a set of exercises on objectives and assessments, check your answers using an answer key, and then write three objectives and matching assessments for the essential ideas/questions that you identified for your content in Lesson 9 (if necessary, you can develop the objectives/assessments for different essential ideas). In the space below, list the three objectives and three corresponding assessments that relate to your subject matter and the level that you teach or intend to teach:

(2 points) Diagnostic Teaching
You were to read chapter three from the Gregory & Kuzmich (2004) Data-Driven Instruction book “Collecting and Using Assessment Data for Diagnostic Teaching,” pages 51-76. Use a double-spaced paragraph to describe how you used their assessment for assessments to further refine one of the objective/assessment combinations you identified in #5, above:

(1 point) Field Research: Identifying Student Performance Measures
You were to do some "field research" to find out what student performance measures are available at your school or in your district (or at a school or district near you) to help you assess your students' needs. Provide a bulleted list of those measures below, with comments on how you would use each:

(2 points) Identifying Possible Pre-Assessments
For the specific objective and matching assessment that you refined in #6, above, you were to identify one or two methods you could use to assess your students' knowledge of that objective, prior to instruction. Record those methods below:

Part 2: Unit Planning Grid (worth 20 points)
Use the unit planning grid template from chapter 4 (p. 114) of Data Driven Differentiation, reproduced below, to develop a unit plan for a portion of your instruction. Expand the grid as necessary to address each section. In completing the grid, consider the questions posed by the authors of the book:

Unit Plan For:
Subject:
Grade(s):

Standards/Benchmarks: What should students know and be able to do?

Key Concepts: What must students remember and be able to use, even after this unit?

Skills: How will students demonstrate they can utilize what they learned in a meaningful way?

Relevance: Why must students learn this and what need is there for this learning across time and applications?

Final Assessment Description: What does the demonstration of learning for this unit look like?

Critical Unit Questions: What questions will the students be able to answer, if they are successful on the final assessment?

Pre-Assessment Design: What do I already know about my students? What do I need to know to get them from where they are to the final assessment?

Chunking or Outlining the Unit: How will I break up the unit into chunks of learning that represent various degrees of growing skill and thinking?

Next Steps to Finish Unit Planning:
-1 Create the final assessment prompts and rubrics. Collect or create models and/or examples.
-2 Create student self-assessment tools or checklists.
-3 Develop a “planning grid” for each unit chunk after pre-assessment.

Defining Learning Outcomes (Objectives)
Once you've assessed your students' needs, you can begin the process of identifying specific learning outcomes for your students to meet those needs. These learning outcomes are often referred to as "instructional objectives" or "learning objectives." As an instructor, developing instructional objectives helps you organize your instructional materials and ensure that you are covering all that is essential.&nbsp; When you inform your learners of these objectives (and you should!), you tell your students what they are supposed to learn.&nbsp; This helps prepare them to learn and enables them to let you know if they are not “getting it.”
It is common, however, to confuse learning objectives with learning activities. Well-designed learning objectives define the competencies your students should possess after they receive instruction, while learning activities are the things you do or the students do to attain the learning objectives. Consider this example:
1. The student will watch a video about different land formations and the tectonic plate movements that are believed to have produced those formations.
2. The student will draw and describe three different land formations and the tectonic plate movements that are believed to have produced them.
The first statement is an activity; an experience designed to allow students to learn about physical land forms. The second statement is a learning objective and describes a skill that should result from an instructional unit on physical land forms.
Another way to illustrate this distinction is to emphasize that you write your objectives in a way that is student-oriented, not teacher-oriented.&nbsp; Many times, this requires a shift in thinking from, for example, "I'm going to teach my students to write a persuasive essay," to "My students will be able to write a persuasive essay after the instruction." It's a subtle shift, but an important one. The second phrase reveals that you are thinking about what the students will be able to do at the end of the process, and not what the instructor (you) will do at the beginning of the process. To illustrate further, an objective with the proper emphasis would read:
Given the miles per hour and the distance, the student will be able to calculate the time required to travel from point A to point B.
An objective that erroneously places the emphasis on the teacher might read:
The instructor will teach the students how to calculate distance...&nbsp;
Consciously making the shift to learner-centered objectives helps you make the shift to learner-centered instruction.
In their classic book, Teaching for Competence, Howard Sullivan and Norman Higgins (1983) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between learning objectives and learning activities. When you sit down to define what your students will learn with objectives, you do not want to list the things you will do or the content you will cover, but rather what your students will know and be able to do following the instruction.
Sullivan and Higgins (1983) also emphasize that teachers should know how to write worthwhile and measurable objectives. Worthwhile objectives are those that are relevant to the students, preparing them with a skill they will use in "real life," or providing knowledge or skill that they must possess to learn other knowledge or skills. For example, of the following objectives, which is the most worthwhile?
1. The student will list the steps involved in changing a car's engine oil.
2. Given fresh engine oil, a new oil filter, appropriate wrenches, a pan and a funnel, the student will change the oil in their car.
The second statement represents a worthwhile skill that the student may, in fact, actually have occasion to use in the future. Actually practicing the skill of changing oil (objective #2) will better prepare the student to perform the skill in the future than will merely listing the steps for changing oil (objective #1).
Some educators emphasize that learning objectives must also be observable and measurable.&nbsp; Robert F. Mager’s work on objectives is probably the best-known and most used material to date.&nbsp; Mager’s popular book “Preparing Instructional Objectives,” written in 1962, states that a learning objective should have three components:
1. Performance or Behavior. The behavior should be specific and observable. Most objectives state the behavior with an action verb.&nbsp; For example “hit a ball...,” “outline a budget...,”&nbsp; “demonstrate an appreciation for democratic processes by voting...,” or “assemble a model....”
2. Conditions. The conditions under which the behavior is to be completed should be stated, including what tools or assistance is to be provided. &nbsp;Often the conditions will be stated at the beginning of an objective with phrases like “Given a bat and a ball...,” “Given a case study and spending parameters...,” “Given the opportunity to vote...,” or “Given a model kit....”
3. Criterion of acceptable performance, or standard. The level of performance that is desirable should be stated.&nbsp; Depending on the form of assessment chosen to ascertain if the objective has been reached, this may include an acceptable range of answers that are allowable as correct, a statement of accuracy or frequency, or a qualitative description.&nbsp; For example, “nine times out of ten...,” “that stays within the acceptable range stated...,” “in every county, state, and federal election,” or “80% of the parts or more.”

A
B
C
D An easy way to remember the elements to include in a measurable objective is to associate it with the acronym “ABCD,” for Audience, Behavior, Conditions, and
Degree (criteria or standards).&nbsp; However, it is important to note that more recent research on instructional goals and objectives indicates that if they are too specific, objectives tend to narrow the students' focus (Marzano, Pickering & Pollock, 2001). A more effective strategy is to encourage students to personalize the teacher’s more general goals or to have them set “sub-goals” (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Morgan, 1985).&nbsp;
When you write objectives, you will find it very helpful to think in terms of the Bloom's taxonomy of thinking skills, mentioned in the last lesson. The "Where Can I Find Out More" section of this lesson (Screen 6) includes links to more information on Bloom's Taxonomy and lists of verbs to use in writing objectives. The learning activities for this part of the lesson will give you more practice in identifying and writing worthwhile and measurable objectives.
Assessing Understanding
A simple multiple choice test does not always indicate understanding. If you remember from Bloom's taxonomy, the basic level of thinking is the "Remember" level, followed by the "Understand" level. So how do you determine whether your students really understand the content they are supposed to know? Grant Wiggins and Jay McTigue (1998) popularized a way of defining "understanding" in their book on the process of "backwards design," entitled Understanding By Design. They stress that when designing instruction, teachers should "begin with the end in mind," using a quote from popular author Steven Covey to elaborate:
"To begin with the end in mind means to start with a clear understanding of your destination. It means to know where you’re going so that you better understand where you are now so that the steps you take are always in the right direction."
(Covey, 1994)
In other words, teachers should have a clear understanding of where their students need to end up. To plan instruction based on the end goals, teachers following the backwards design model begin at the end to:
1. Identify the desired results;
2. Determine what constitutes acceptable evidence of those results; and
3. Plan learning experiences and instruction that are geared toward producing those results.
Wiggins and McTigue go on to define six facets of understanding including explanation, interpretation, application, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge. When a student truly understands something, he or she can explain it, providing complete facts and data that support their account. The student should also be able to interpret it, showing through examples, meaningful stories and analogies that they have a grasp of the essence of the topic. Furthermore, the understanding student should be able to apply it, effectively using it and adapting it to new situations, and they should demonstrate perspective, including knowledge of the big picture and an informed and critical eye. They should also be able to empathize, finding value in something that mere observers might not perceive. Finally, the student who understands also has self-knowledge of what they understand, what they do not understand, and why so that they can direct their own learning on the topic. They also understand that they view the topic from their own perspective and they are aware of their prejudices and the role their prior knowledge and experiences play in how they understand a topic.
For this lesson, you will read a portion of the Wiggins and McTigue book, which is available as an eBook through the Virginia Tech library's subscription to NetLibrary (see directions for accessing eBooks in the learning activity that follows).
Aligned Objectives and Assessments
Practically speaking, beginning with the end in mind means that you will develop your assessments at the same time that you develop your learning objectives and that they will sound very similar. Over the years, educators have come to understand the term assessment as meaning a final test to determine a grade. But take a minute to consider a slightly modified meaning for assessment that reflects the focus of the Barber and Mourshed (2007) report on effective schools world-wide: that of providing instruction and assessing learning in a way that enables all students to perform well.
To illustrate, if you are a home owner, your local tax district has probably sent someone to assess the value of your house. That individual comes to your home and assesses its current value for tax purposes. If you questioned that individual about the factors considered in the assessment, they could tell you how to increase the value of your home if you were planning to sell. (Maybe it's time to invest in indoor plumbing!) As a teacher, you want to be able to do this for each of your students: assess their current knowledge and their preferred ways of learning and then make adjustments to your instruction to help them increase their academic achievement. If you make a habit of assessing their learning on a regular basis (not just with final tests, but daily), and make minor adjustments to your instruction based on the results, you will empower your students to "hit the target" or achieve more of what they are capable of achieving in your class.
Informing your students of the learning targets (or learning objectives), or even allowing them to customize the objectives for themselves involves them in the process and builds their "buy-in" for the learning process. When students are also involved in monitoring their own progress by keeping track of their performance on those daily assessments, they learn more about how they learn best, and become more autonomous and responsible for their own learning. Autonomous learners make good life-long learners, and in this rapidly changing world, everyone needs the skills necessary to continue learning on their own.
The key to successful frequent, or formative, assessments is to make sure that they match, or are aligned to, the learning objectives. That's why you design them at the same time. As mentioned earlier in this course, you want to:
Tell them what they need to know and do, teach them what they need to know and do, and test them on what they need to know and do.
In this way, you partner with students to aim toward academic success. You become the "guide at the side" as opposed to the "sage on the stage." The learning activities for this lesson and Lesson 11 will help you as you design objectives, instruction and assessments that are aligned and help improve student achievement.
Tools for Planning What to Teach & Assess

Your students’ success at passing the SOL tests depends on how well you are able to teach the skills outlined in the standards.&nbsp; The previous lesson addressed some of the tools available for helping you plan what to teach. This lesson will introduce additional tools and methods. But there is so much material, and usually not enough time to cover it all.&nbsp; What are some of the discussions educators are having to make concerning the SOLs?&nbsp; What is your opinion on the subject?&nbsp; Do you have one yet?&nbsp; The next learning activity prompts you to investigate the standards and related issues that impact your professional practice. Future activities in this lesson will introduce some methods for "wading through" all the material to design effective instruction.&nbsp;
Learning Activities
As always, as you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.

Reading & Reflection Assignment
Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 10 assignment.
1. Teaching to the Standards - View and print out the Virginia Standards of Learning for your grade level and subject matter, accessible from the following link:
http://www.pen.k12.va.us/go/Sols/home.shtml

How have you or will you attempt to address the SOLs that pertain to you and your course content?&nbsp; As you do the readings for this lesson, consider whether you will adjust your approach to tackling in the SOLs as a result of things you have read. Record your thoughts in a paragraph and save them for use in the Lesson 10 assignment.
2. Standards & NCLB - Read the background information on Virginia's Standards of Learning and the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act and the impact of its implementation, by reading the following 2003 web article, "Implementing No Child Left Behind: Virginia Revisits Educational Accountability" by K.G. Harris at: http://dls.state.va.us/pubs/briefs/brief34.htm

What new understandings about the Virginia Standards of Learning and NCLB implementation do you have after reading the web article by Harris listed above?
3. Using Data To Improve Instruction & Student Achievement - Read the following four-page article by Decker (2003) on the use of data in instruction:
Decker (2003). Creating a Framework to Make Data-Driven Instruction a Reality. MultiMedia Schools. Online article.

Consider the framework recommended by the Decker in the article you just read. Do you collect student data? What strategies and tools sound like something you already use or that you could use to plan more effective instruction? Do you use something different? What, if anything, will you do differently or do you wish you had guidance for doing differently? If you're satisfied with your current method, why? If you're not currently teaching, which of the tools mentioned, or other tools, do you anticipate using? Record your answers to these questions in one or two paragraphs and save them for the Lesson 10 assignment.
4. Assessing Understanding - Read chapters 3 and 4 of the eBook Understanding by Design, pages 38-62 (25 pp.), by Wiggins & McTighe entitled "Understanding Understanding" and "The Six Facets of Understanding." (Click here for instructions on how to access eBooks through the VT library's NetLibrary subscription.)

What new ideas do you want to remember from the discussion of "understanding" described in these chapters? Write your thoughts in a paragraph and save them for the Lesson 10 assignment.
5. Aligned Objectives and Assessments - Practice aligning objectives and assessments by accessing and completing the attached objectives/assessments exercise. After completing parts 1 through 5 of the exercise, check your work by accessing the answer key. Then, write three objectives and matching assessments for the essential ideas/questions that you identified in Lesson 9. Save your aligned objectives and assessments for the Lesson 10 assignment.
Save your answers to the above items for the Lesson 10 assignment.
Teaching Diagnostically: Pre-Assessments & Performance Measures
Once you have decided on what your students should know, then you must then determine if they actually have the necessary prerequisite knowledge to learn this new material. How do you determine if your students understand what they are supposed to know and if they are ready to build on that prior knowledge with the new information you plan to teach them? Tools for determining what your students know may consist of pre-assessments on specific content that you can develop and administer once the students are seated in your classroom. This type of testing is often referred to as "assessment for learning" as opposed to "assessment of learning." Ideally, pre-assessments should not be graded and teachers should use similar measures throughout the year (formative assessments) to monitor students' learning progress. Content tests that give you an idea of the range of knowledge in a specific class will indicate whether your students are all on the same level, or if some will need more challenging material while others need remediation to catch up to the majority of the class.
In addition, there are a variety of student performance measures that may be available to you through the guidance office and in student records, to help you in diagnosing your students' learning needs. There are a wide range of student performance measures from the school, district, state, and nation that you can compare to your students' scores to help you judge whether they have the knowledge and skills that they should have developed by this point in their academic career. Both global and local student performance measures tend to drive the curriculum, and they are often used to assess the success of a particular school or even the school's administrator. Examples of these measures include:
· national assessments of student achievement (SATs, ACTs, etc.)
· state, local or district standards-based assessments
· school-wide reading tests
· benchmark assessments supplied by your content textbook publisher or your curriculum department
· end-of-course exam grades and percentages
· percentages of students who pass or fail each grade
· drop-out rates for high schools
· school priority comparisons such as the number of students who enter college upon graduation, percentage of students completing a certain amount of math, science, social studies, English, or a foreign language
· AYP (Annual Yearly Progress) data from the previous five years
· percentage of students in AP courses
· discipline statistics such as number of out-of-school suspensions, and the number of students receiving those suspensions
· absentee figures
· student awards and honors
· number of national merit finalists, semi-finalist and commended students produced by your school
· student involvement in extra-curricular activities or school and community contributions
· individual grade or department action plan indicators (for example, to have all English students express themselves fluently in writing, or have all fifth graders proficient in key-boarding)
So how do such measures impact your practice, or how can you use the statistics to analyze your own instruction and diagnose the instructional needs represented in your classroom? You can compare, for example, your school's pass/fail figures to your own pass/fail rate. Are you passing more or less students than the school's rate, and what does that figure say about your instruction? If you teach high school, how many of your students aspire to go to college? Are you challenging them to excellence so that they will be more likely to achieve those goals? Do your students excel to the point that they win honors and awards? If not, what learning activities can you build into your curriculum that will steer them toward such honors and awards? How does your rate of absenteeism or your discipline statistics compare to those of the school as a whole? If your school did not meet AYP standards in the 'socioeconomically challenged' subgroup, are you making the students that you teach in that subgroup are getting sufficient attention? Do the end-of-course scores for courses that are pre-requisites to your own indicate that the students will come into your classroom well-prepared or needing remediation?
There are other ways such performance measures can impact your practice. Some states compensate schools with funding based on their student performance measures. With NCLB, states run the risk of losing federal funding if schools are performing poorly. In this high-stakes climate, all of these factors may impact the school and department in which you teach, and the availability of materials for teaching.
Curriculum Mapping
Take a moment to consider that all this data must be recorded and available for teachers like you to use in diagnosing learning needs and instructional success. You also have a responsibility in this process to record and make available the data you gather. It will help you now to help your students learn and it will help you in the future to improve your own instruction. If made available, it will likely also help others that teach your students in future years, or those who are responsible for reviewing, coordinating and revising the over-all curriculum.
You may be familiar with the term curriculum mapping. Curriculum mapping has been around a long time, and was described by English (1983) as "a technique for recording time-on-task data and then analyzing this data to determine the 'fit' to the officially adopted curriculum and the assessment/testing program" (p. 13). Today, teachers themselves can use software to record what they cover and how well their students do on performance assessments. You should make a monthly record of:
· the processes and skills emphasized;
· the content in terms of essential concepts and topics, or the content as examined in essential questions; and
· the products and performances that are the assessments of learning.
Keeping track of these items is essential to figuring out whether the data indicate that your instruction has been successful at teaching the content, processes and skills you set out to teach. For an example of a curriculum map for an 11th grade science course, click here.
Curriculum Map Example – 11th Grade Science Map
(Adapted from: Jacobs, 1997)

Sept Oct Nov Dec January Feb March April May June
Content Matter Symbols Equations Molecular Structure Periodic Table Bonds Atoms Molecules Gas Laws Solids Liquids Solutions Acids
Salts Kinetics Equilibrium Review
Processes & Skills Observation Lab Writing Computer
·1 CD-Rom use
·2 Graphic organizers Model Formations Essay Writing Historical Empirical Research Skills Observations
Speaking Skills Posing Problems Posing Problems
Assessments Notebooks,
Lab Reports, Lab Performance (continue all year) Data sheets 3-D model report,
Quarter test Multiple choice,
Essay Chart with findings,
Quarter test 3-D model,
Research study (continue through end of year), Analytic essay (continue through end of year) Chart with findings (continue through end of year) Position paper, Quarter test End of Course test

Learning Activities
As always, as you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.

*** Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 10 assignment. ***
1. Diagnostic Teaching - Read the following chapter from the book by Gregory & Kuzmich (2004) Data Driven Differentiation in the Standards-Based Classroom:

Chapter 3 - Collecting and Using Assessment Data for Diagnostic Teaching, pages 51-76 (26 pp.).

The authors of Data Driven Differentiation emphasize aligning assessments with the standards. On page 75 they provide an example of what they recommend you use to assess your assessments. Access this version of the assessment for assessments and use it to further refine one of the objective/assessment combinations you identified for the previous learning activity (Screen 2).

Note that this reading also introduces a handy tool called the Adjustable Learning Grid. You will re-visit this grid tool in the readings and assignment for Lesson 11.
2. Identifying Available Student Performance Measures - Do some "field research" to find out what student performance measures are available at your school (or a school you know of) or in your district to help you assess your students' needs. Record these measures for the Lesson 10 assignment.
3. Identifying Possible Pre-Assessments - For the specific objective and matching assessment that you refined in #1, above, identify one or two methods you could use to assess your students' knowledge of that objective, prior to instruction. Record these methods for the Lesson 10 assignment
Save your answers for the Lesson 10 assignment.
Designing Instruction that Meets Individual Needs
It has only been in the last fifty years that educators have realized that a "one size fits all" approach to instruction does not meet the needs of a large number of students in our classrooms. Beginning in the mid-twentieth century, the "individualized instruction" movement, the "open classroom," and individualized reading were the first signs of a move toward considering the needs of each and every student in instruction (Yatvin, 2004). What does it mean to "individualize instruction"? Is it truly possible? How can it be done in a class of 25 to 30 learners who are unique individuals with unique learning styles and intelligences?
While truly individualized instruction has yet to be fully realized, more and more strategies are being developed to enable the classroom teacher to accommodate individual differences, or differentiate instruction. Differentiated instruction is a teaching approach that reflects a recognition that students vary with respect to background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, interests, and intelligences; as well as a commitment to design instruction that strives to accommodate those varying characteristics. Today, the differentiated instruction movement provides teachers with more details of just how to accomplish the task of meeting the needs of all students in the classroom. Tomlinson (1999) defines several general principles that should guide differentiated classrooms:
· A focus on the essentials, or "big ideas" in the curriculum;
· Attention to student differences;
· Assessment that is aligned to the learning outcomes and instruction, and with assessments that are ongoing and diagnostic; and
· A willingness to modify content, process and products based on assessment data (pp. 9-14)
Click here to view how Tomlinson characterizes the difference between the traditional classroom and the differentiated classroom.
You will consider specific strategies for differentiation in Lesson 12 of this course, and methods for differentiation are covered thoroughly in another ALPS course, Curriculum and Instructional Procedures.
Ways Learners Differ
Each of your students learns in a unique manner. Naturally, with a class of 20 or more students it would be impossible to individualize instruction for each student, but with the resources available to today's teacher, you can move closer to that ideal. There are many factors that affect how and what your students learn, including their educational level and ability, their prior knowledge and experiences, their preferred learning style and attention span, physical characteristics, motivation, interests and attitudes. With a little knowledge about your learners, you can design instruction to meet the needs of students with widely-varying learning styles, intelligences, motivations, and background knowledge and skills. A brief discussion of some of these areas is included below. More detail on individual differences in learning is provided in the ALPS courses entitled, Curriculum and Instructional Procedures and Human Growth and Development.
Learning Styles
Learning style refers to the manner in which a person perceives, processes, stores, and recalls what they are attempting to learn.&nbsp; Each individual’s brain is unique in the way it learns, and since there is no such thing as a “right” way to approach learning, students should be encouraged to discover how their brain most efficiently perceives new information.&nbsp;&nbsp; Becoming more aware of the nature of your learning style improves your ability to learn and retain information.
One popular and simple means of categorizing learning styles is through Perceptual Learning Styles, or the way a learner prefers to perceive information.&nbsp;&nbsp; How do you perceive and remember information?&nbsp; For example, when you attempt to remember a telephone number, do you “see” the number in your mind the way you wrote it on a piece of paper?&nbsp; In that case, you may be a visual learner.&nbsp; Or do you “hear” the number the way you or someone else recited it to you?&nbsp; If this is the case, you may be an aural learner.&nbsp; Or, do you need to use your fingers to recall it, entering it on the telephone keypad?&nbsp; If that’s the case, you may be a kinesthetic/tactile learner.&nbsp;
There are so many different learning styles models and categorizations in the literature today that deciding which model to use to improve your learning or instruction can be confusing, but it is well worth the effort.&nbsp; A listing of web resources is provided on Screen 6 of this lesson.&nbsp;
Multiple Intelligences
Every brain is uniquely organized.&nbsp; In the past, individuals were assumed to have a single, static, quantifiable and un-changing intelligence that was measured by Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests.&nbsp; However, research indicates that intelligence is not static but it can be modified, expanded and developed throughout life. &nbsp;For example, Marian Diamond’s theory of the “plasticity” of the brain indicates that the body, brain, and intelligence are altered by environmental conditions, interpersonal stimulation, and the way in which individuals think and behave (Diamond, 1988).
Currently-accepted views of intelligence conceptualize it as having many facets and consisting of a hierarchy of abilities with general ability at the top and specific abilities (such as perception, visualization, discriminations, reasoning, oral and writing fluency, reaction time, and more) at lower levels of the hierarchy (Sternberg, 2000). However, some psychologists insist that there are many separate intellectual abilities. According to Harvard psychologist and educator Howard Gardner (1983), intelligent behavior includes a wide range of human abilities and could be defined as:
· the ability to solve problems encountered in life;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
· the ability to generate new problems to solve;&nbsp;and
· the ability to make something or offer a service that is valued within a culture (Gardner, 1983).
Gardner claimed that our Western culture and our school systems are biased toward and designed to accommodate verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences, to the detriment of students with strengths in other intelligences.&nbsp; His Theory of Multiple Intelligences stressed that every person possesses some expertise in each of the nine intelligences that he has identified, and all of us are capable of becoming more adept in all of the 8-1/2 (originally 7) intelligences. Click here to view a chart that provides details on each of the intelligences.
One of the greatest strengths of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is that he has been able to accurately pinpoint parts of the brain that correlate to each described intelligence, with the exception of his most recent addition, existential intelligence which he refers to as a "half-intelligence." &nbsp; A link to an online intelligence inventory to enable you to determine your own "strong" and "undeveloped" intelligences is included on Screen 6 of this lesson.
Background Knowledge
In any given class and for any given content, you will have some students who have more and less background on the topic than the majority of students. The previous screen on pre-assessments and student performance measures addressed this factor in planning instruction. The measures described on that screen, collecting data on previous test scores, SOL results, and grades can give you a start toward determining who knows what, and giving students "pretests" prior to instruction can provide a current picture of what the class knows about the topic to be studied. The data available varies with each school and you may have to dig deep to find some of it, but often, there is much more information available on what students know and can do than you would think.
Effective Strategies for Instruction
If you've been teaching for even a little while, you know that there are more strategies for instruction than you could possibly learn in a single course, much less in a course like this one that is devoted to a broader topic. In addition, the past twenty years have yielded a variety of teaching and learning strategies that aid teachers in their attempts to differentiate instruction. Instructional strategies, including those that work well in conjunction with technology, are covered in great depth in the ALPS course entitled, Curriculum and Instructional Procedures. It may be worth your time now, though, to consider nine instructional strategies that have been shown through the research to be highly effective.
Researcher Robert Marzano (1998, 2001) conducted a meta-analysis of research studies on effective instructional strategies and found nine that were highly successful in increasing student achievement across student populations, content areas, and grade levels:

Category Effect Size Percentile
Gain
Identifying similarities and differences 1.31 45
Summarizing and note taking 1.00 34
Reinforcing effort and providing recognition .80 29
Homework and practice .77 28
Nonlinguistic representation .75 27
Cooperative learning .73 27
Setting objectives and providing feedback .61 23
Generating and testing hypotheses .61 23
Cues, questions and advanced organizers .59 22

The above chart lists the effect sizes determined by Marzano for each of the nine strategies. Effect Size is a statistical means of looking at significance that compares the average scores of the control group with those of the experimental group. Effect sizes of .20 are considered 'small but significant' in education. Effect sizes of .50 are considered 'medium,' and effect sizes of .80 are considered 'large.' Note that the effect sizes for strategies reported by Marzano are all in the medium to large category, ranging from .59 to 1.61.

The chart also lists the percentile gain for each strategy. In order to understand percentile gain, it is first necessary to understand Percentile Rank. This is a measure of where students fall on a continuum from 1 to 99 percent. For example, in a group of 100 students, a student who is at the 85th percentile scores higher than 84 other students. In Marzano's study, the percentile gain refers to how much better students performed who were taught with the specified strategy than those not taught with the strategy. A reported percentile gain of 23 means that the student scored 23 percentile points higher than they would have scored without the use of the strategy. The nine instructional strategies identified by Marzano yielded impressive gains of 22 to 45 percentile points. Armed with these effective strategies, you can begin to experiment with what works for your content and your students.
If You've Been Teaching or Working With Adults...
If prior to teaching you worked with or taught adults, there are a few things you should be reminded of or should know. Do adults and children learn differently? Experts disagree on this. Click on this link to find out more.

Lesson 10 -Instructional Design Based on Assessment Data I

Do Adults and Children Learn Differently?
If prior to teaching you worked with or taught adults, there are a few things you should be reminded of or should know. Do adults and children learn differently? Experts disagree on this.
For many centuries, the term pedagogy has been used to refer to the art and science of educating children and is often used as a synonym for teaching.&nbsp; In contrast, the term andragogy was popularized by the American educator Malcolm Knowles (1970) who used it to describe his theory of adult education.&nbsp; Knowles devised a set of four assumptions that differentiated adults from children as learners: self-concept (adults are self-directing and children are more dependent on adults to indicate what is important), experience (adults have a richer source of previous experience), readiness to learn (adults are more developmentally ready because their learning needs relate to fulfilling their social roles), and orientation to learning (adults typically wish to use the information immediately while children are oriented toward learning for future needs) (Knowles, 1970, p.39).
More recently, the meaning and usage of the terms have broadened and there has been much debate over whether Knowles principles should be applied to children as well.&nbsp; Pedagogy is now frequently used to refer to teacher-centered instruction or teacher-directed learning, and andragogy is frequently used to refer to learner-centered instruction.&nbsp; Learner-centered environments are those that are designed to build on the “knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p. 133).
But is there actually a difference between the way that children and adults learn?&nbsp; Should there be a difference in how they are taught?
Knowles argued that adults and children learn differently (Knowles, 1970). He pointed to the fact that adults have more extensive and more organized background knowledge than young children. They may be more strategic in how they learn, may have different motivations for learning, and may be more aware of their learning so that they monitor and self-regulate their learning better (Smith, 2002). &nbsp;Others agree.&nbsp; The National Center for Research in Vocational Education (NCRVE, 1987) made the following general distinctions between the adult learner and the child:
Child Learner
Adult Learner

Children depend upon adults for material support, psychological support, and life management. They are other-directed.
Adults depend upon themselves for material support and life management. Although they must still meet many psychological needs through others, they are largely self-directed.

Children perceive one of their major roles in life to be that of learner.
Adults perceive themselves to be doers; using previous learning to achieve success as workers, parents, etc.

Children generally learn what they are told to learn.
Adults learn best when they perceive learning outcomes as valuable to their own development, work success, etc.

Children view the established learning content as important because adults tell them it is important.
Adults often have very different ideas about what is important to learn.

Children, as a group within educational settings, are much alike. They're approximately the same age, come from similar socioeconomic backgrounds, etc.
Adults are very different from each other. Adult learning groups are likely to be composed of persons of many different ages, backgrounds, education levels, etc.

Children actually perceive time differently than older people do. Our perception of time changes as we age--time seems to pass more quickly as we get older.
Adults perceive time itself differently than do children, and they are also more concerned about the effective use of time.

Children have a limited experience base.
Adults have a broad experience base to relate to new learning.

Children generally learn quickly.
Adults, for the most part, learn more slowly than children, but they learn just as well.

Children are open to new information and will readily adjust their views.
Adults are much more likely to reject or explain away new information that contradicts their beliefs.

Children's readiness to learn is linked to both academic development and biological development.
Adults' readiness to learn is directly linked to needs related to fulfilling their roles as workers, spouses, parents, etc. & coping with life changes (divorce, death of a loved one, retirement).

Children learn (at least in part) because learning will be of use in the future.
Adults are concerned with the immediate applicability of learning.

Children are often externally motivated (by the promise of good grades, praise from teachers and parents, etc.)
Adults are more often internally motivated (by the potential for feelings of worth, self-esteem, achievement, etc.)

Children have less well-formed sets of expectations in terms of formal learning experiences. Their "filter" of past experience is smaller than that of adults.
Adults have well-formed expectations, which, unfortunately, are sometimes negative because they are based upon unpleasant past formal learning experiences.

Optional Activity: Investigating Whether Adults and Children Learn Differently
Researchers promote different ideas on the topic of whether adults and children learn differently. If you need help in forming your own opinion, check out the resources below.

1. Read “Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy” by Mark K. Smith (2002), available at this link:
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm
2. Read either the article entitled “Teaching adults: Is it different?” by Sandra Kerka (2002), available at this link:
http://www.cete.org/acve/docs/mr00036.pdf&nbsp;
OR
the article entitled “Do adults and children learn differently?” by Karen Webster, Miriam Zachariah, Joelle McFaury, & Leah McMullin (2001), available at this link:&nbsp; http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~dschugurensky/faqs/qa9.html

?&nbsp; &nbsp;
Do you agree or disagree with Knowles?&nbsp; Do you agree or disagree with Kerka or McFaury & McMullin?&nbsp;

Using Diagnostic Data to Plan Effective Instruction
So far, you've considered the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes your students should possess, the learning objectives that reflect those essential items, the assessments that will most accurately test mastery of those essential items, and the options for instruction (instructional strategies) that will help you meet the individual needs and characteristics of your students. You've also looked at how to collect data to determine what each student knows and doesn't know about the content to be presented. Now it's time to put it all together to begin the process of planning your instruction.&nbsp;&nbsp;The learning activity for this section of the lesson will provide the background information for this process, which you will implement for the Lesson 10 assignment.
Learning Activities
As always, as you do the readings and the learning activities for this lesson, you should contemplate how they apply to your philosophy of education and your teaching practice.

*** Complete the following activities and save your work for the Lesson 10 assignment. ***
1. Curriculum Approaches - Read the following chapter from the book by Gregory & Kuzmich (2004) Data Driven Differentiation in the Standards-Based Classroom:

Chapter 4 - Curriculum Approaches for Data Driven Instruction, pages 77-114 (38 pp.).
The authors of Data Driven Differentiation advocate choosing a theme or context to focus a unit plan. They describe how to use a single unit plan as a relevant framework to combine several learning standards, describing those standards as skills and testing them through a focused approach to the concepts and assessment.

Consider the unit planning gird or template on page 114 of chapter 4 of the readings and how you might use it to address several standards for a unit of your content. As you do, pose to yourself the questions that the authors raise:
· Why must students learn this and what need is there for this learning across time and applications?
· What does the demonstration of learning (the assessment) for this unit look like?
· What deeper levels of thinking are needed to truly demonstrate the standards included in the unit?
· How can I incorporate the demonstration of those levels of thinking into the assessment?
· How can I translate the standards into meaningful questions for my students?
· How can I "chunk" the content in the unit to aid student learning?

Your assignment for this lesson requires you to do a unit plan based on the template provided on page 114 of the reading. Record your thoughts on the above questions, saving them for that Lesson 10 assignment (described more fully on the assignment worksheet).
Save your answers for the Lesson 10 assignment.

~~~~~~
Contemplating & Applying This Lesson:
Re-consider the focus questions from the beginning of this lesson to prepare yourself for the Lesson 10 assignment:
· How can I write instructional objectives that accurately convey the learning outcomes that my students must achieve?
· How do I determine what my students already know and how does that impact my instruction?
· What type of student performance measures are available to me, to help me identify my students' learning needs and abilities?
· How can I design assessments that accurately test my students' knowledge and mastery of the learning objectives?
· How can I use student data to design instruction that meets my students' needs?
Reflect on how the answers to the questions above impact your own personal philosophy of education and how that, in turn, impacts your teaching. You will use these thoughts to complete the Lesson 10 assessment.
Where can I find out more?
The learning activities for this lesson require you to do some research for your paper on a source of educational inequity that impacts your teaching practice. You may find the following web sites helpful in doing your research.

The Virginia Department of Education website provides a wide variety of resources that are available to teachers to help them determine what to teach:
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/
The Virginia Report Card for 2006 can be viewed at:

http://www.doe.virginia.gov/VDOE/NewHome/pressreleases/2006/aug31.html

For a refresher on Bloom's Taxonomy and revised taxonomy, go to:
http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/bloom.htm
To access a listing of verbs for each of Bloom's cognitive levels to use in writing objectives, go to (scroll down to the table at the bottom):
http://eprentice.sdsu.edu/J03OJ/miles/Bloomtaxonomy(revised)1.htm &nbsp;
BLOOM'S
Revised
Taxonomy
Multiple Intelligences:
Inventory Your Intelligences - To determine your own strong and underdeveloped intelligences, take a multiple intelligence inventory like the one available at the following site:
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; http://www.ldrc.ca/projects/miinventory/miinventory.php&nbsp;
(Begin by scrolling to the bottom of the page and enter a name, etc.)&nbsp;
Books:
There are two books on multiple intelligences currently available as eBooks through the Virginia Tech subscription to NetLibrary:
Armstrong, T. (2000).&nbsp; Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (2rd edition). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
and
Campbell, L. & Campbell, B. (1999). Multiple Intelligences and Student Achievement: Success Stories from Six Schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
[These books are available as eBooks through the Virginia Tech subscription to NetLibrary]
If you are interested in Gardner's "1/2 intelligence" known as Existential Intelligence, you can read Dr. Leslie Owen Wilson’s (University of Wisconsin) thoughts on existential intelligence and explore her site at:

http://www.uwsp.edu/Education/lwilson/learning/ninthintelligence.htm

Learning Styles:
The following website and online articles provide further information on learning styles:
New Horizons for Learning website on Learning Styles:
http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/styles/front_styles.htm
McKeachie, W.J. (1995).&nbsp; Learning styles can become teaching strategies. National Teaching and Learning Forum, 4(6).&nbsp; Retrieved May, 2006 from: http://www.ntlf.com/html/pi/9511/article1.htm

Provides a brief introduction and overview of issues and concerns to be considered when exploring the use of learning styles in teaching.

Felder, R. (1996). Matters of style.&nbsp; ASEE Prism, 6(4), 18-23.&nbsp; Retrieved May, 2006 from:
http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/LS-Prism.htm

The author briefly outlines four models of learning style, indicating where engineering students traditionally fall on each. &nbsp;While his observations address college students, the examples and additional readings for each learning style model are broadly applicable.
Felder, R. (1993).&nbsp; Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education.&nbsp; J. College Science Teaching, 23(5), 286-290. Retrieved May, 2006 from:
http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/Secondtier.html

Again, while addressed to higher education, the examples and instructional methods apply to all levels and are particularly relevant to science education. Learning Styles Articles
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Styles model describes the type of cognitive processing carried out by a learner. It measures processing on two scales: concrete to abstract, and reflective to active. Find out more at:
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/experience.htm
The Gregorc model also uses the abstract/concrete scale along with a scale to measure how a person prefers to order information, from random to sequential. Find out more at:
http://www.csrnet.org/csrnet/articles/student-learning-styles.html
The Honey-Mumford model also describes cognitive processing preferences, providing the labels of activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist. Find out more at:
http://www.campaign-forlearning.org.uk/aboutyourlearning/whatlearning.htm
Several other links on learning styles can be accessed at:
http://www.support4learning.org.uk/education/learning_styles.cfm &nbsp;
Learning Styles Links
~~~ Continue to Screen 7 for the lesson assessment. ~~~
Lesson 10 Assessment:
For this lesson assignment you will reflect on the readings and learning activities to answer questions on an assignment worksheet. Specifically, you will:
1. Assignment Worksheet - Access and save the attached Lesson 10 Assignment Worksheet to your desktop, using the filename [yourPID]_edfdns10.doc (for example: smith07_edfdns10.doc). Answer the questions thoroughly but concisely. Use the rubric provided below to guide your efforts and be sure to check your paper for proper spelling, grammar, and sentence structure.
2. Unit Plan - As part of your assignment worksheet, you will be directed to use the Unit Planning Grid from the Data Driven Differentiation reading (found on page 114 of the chapter 4 reading), to design a unit plan that incorporates some of the standards of learning for your content and grade level. Recall that you can use resources related to Virginia standards cited in the lesson and in the "Where Can I Find Out More" section of Screen 6.
3. Submit Assignment Worksheet for a Grade - Your worksheet with the unit plan should be completed and submitted for a grade by midnight of the Saturday listed as the Lesson 10 assignment due date on the "Assignments" screen for the course. Use the Blackboard "Assignments" button to officially submit your worksheet for a grade, with the name:

[yourPID]_edfdns10.doc
Expectations: (40 total points possible)
Your paper will be graded according to the following rubric:

Synopsis Paper Criteria Points Possible Standard for Full Credit
Teaching to the Standards 2 Used a paragraph to address the measures participant has taken to address the SOLs pertaining to their content and whether their approach has changed as a result of the readings for this lesson. If changed, commented on how; if not changed, described why.
Standards & NCLB 2 Used a paragraph to describe any new understandings about the Virginia SOLs and NCLB implementation gleaned from the web article by Harris.
Using Data To Improve Instruction & Student Achievement 3 Used one-to-two paragraphs to address participant's previous use of data in instruction, and to address five questions related to the previous or future implementation of the methods described in the Decker article.
Assessing Understanding 2 Used one paragraph to describe the new ideas about "understanding" participant wants to remember from the Wiggins/McTighe eBook chapters.
Aligned Objectives & Assessments 6 Listed three objectives and corresponding assessments for the essential ideas/questions participant identified for their content in Lesson 9 (alternatively, participant could identify different essential ideas for which the objectives/assessments were developed).
Diagnostic Teaching 2 Used one paragraph to describe how participant used the assessment for assessments from chapter 3 of the Gregory/Kuzmich reading to further refine one of their objective/assessment combinations.
Field Research: Identifying Student Performance Measures 1 Participant provided a bulleted list of student performance measures available from their school, district or a near-by school or district, that they could use to assess their students' needs.
Identifying Possible Pre-Assessments 2 For the objective and assessment refined using the assessment for assessments (above), the participant identified one or two methods they could use to assess their students' knowledge of that objective, prior to instruction.
Unit Planning Grid 20 Participant thoroughly completed the unit planning grid template from chapter 4 of the Gregory/Kuzmich reading for a portion of their content.
Total Points Awarded/
Total Points Possible /40 Comments:
~~~ Continue to Screen 8 to access the Lesson 10 references. ~~~

Foundations of Education Lesson 10: Assignment Worksheet

Part 1: Questions 1 – 8 (worth 20 points)

3. (2 points) Standards & NCLB
You were to read the 2003 web article, "Implementing No Child Left Behind: Virginia Revisits Educational Accountability" by K.G. Harris. Use one double-spaced paragraph to describe any new understandings about the Virginia Standards of Learning and NCLB implementation you gleaned from the web article. If you did not glean any new understandings, comment on whether you agree or disagree with the author’s position.

Unit Plan For:
Subject:
Grade(s):

Standards/Benchmarks: What should students know and be able to do?

Key Concepts: What must students remember and be able to use, even after this unit?

Lesson Planning Worksheet Using Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Subject: __________________  Unit:  ______________________________  Topic to be addressed: _____________________________________

Does Topic Require More Than 1 Class Period? ______    Length of Class Period: _________    (NOTE: This lesson plan should be for 1 Class Period)                             

Major Concepts and Facts, Procedures and Skills, or Attitudes students must learn: ___________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Gagne’s Events of Instruction * 	Theory/Reason Behind Planning for the Event	Guiding Question for Planning	Examples of How to Incorporate the Event	Your Answers to the Guiding Question (Instructional Strategies)	
1. Gain Attention	Reception	How will you get and keep the students’ attention?   	·0 Begin with the question “What do you think”? ·1 Use novelty or creativity to present the topic. ·2 Relate the topic to a current event or a subject relevant to the students.   		
2. Inform Learners of the Objectives	Expectancy	How will you inform your students of the lesson objectives?   	·3 Provide the written objectives or an outline as an advance organizer. ·4 Solicit their thoughts on what they would like to know or think they should know about the topic, then present what you think. (KWL charts: Know-Want to Know- Have Learned charts) ·5 Show a video of the desired performance. ·6 Provide a rubric for the activity or task. 		
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge/Learning	Retrieval	How will you remind students of the applicable knowledge that they learned in the past, or their previous related experiences? 	·7 Review a previous lesson. ·8 Give a quiz or “pre-test” on the knowledge or skills they are to recall and use. ·9 Draw or have students draw a concept map of their current perceptions about the topic. ·10 Have students summarize the prerequisite knowledge and/or skills. ·11 Pose a discussion question to encourage students to think of related experiences. 		
4. Present the Stimulus (content or learning activity)	Selective Perception	How will you teach the information or what type of learning activity or environment will you create to foster learning? 	·12 Give a lecture on the topic. ·13 Give a multimedia introduction to the new knowledge and/or skills. ·14 Present the content in story form. ·15 Provide a guest speaker. ·16 Present a problem or case and require students to research the content to determine a solution or analyze the case. ·17 Require students to take a self-paced tutorial to learn the content.         		
5. Provide Guidance to the Learners	Semantic Encoding	How will you provide guidance (scaffolding, support) to the learners?    	·18 Demonstrate the skill or apply the knowledge as an example or non-example. ·19 Use questioning to help students exercise critical thinking skills. ·20 Model the desired behavior or thought processes (cognitive apprenticeship). ·21 Use teacher-student or peer-collaboration to conduct an experiment or try out the desired behavior. ·22 Use a physical model or concept maps to portray the relationships.        		
6. Elicit Performance from the Learners 	Responding (also Retrieval)	What type of homework, practice, or learning activities will you provide to help the students learn? 	·23 Use role-plays based on authentic scenarios. ·24 Have students work through case studies or problem scenarios. ·25 Use simulations and games to practice. ·26 Provide homework. ·27 Have students complete projects or construct job aids that display the relevant skills or knowledge they are to have learned. ·28 Have students provide examples.        		
7. Provide Feedback to the Learners	Reinforcement	What will you do to let the learners know how they’re doing? How will you correct, affirm, or encourage them? 	·29 Indicate whether student examples are correct/incorrect. ·30 Correct projects or papers. ·31 Have peers critique the performance or project. ·32 Suggest alternatives to achieve the same or different results. ·33 Pose “what if?” questions.          		
8. Assess the Performance of the Learners	Retrieval	How will you know that the students have learned the material or can do the desired tasks?  	·34 Provide a test of the new knowledge, a skills mastery test, or opportunity to exhibit a changed attitude. ·35 Require the development of a project that demonstrates the desired behavior, or provides evidence of application of the learned concepts. ·36 Require students to suggest alternatives to a procedure, plan or product presented. ·37 Require the learner to construct a summary of the new information.     		
9. Enhance the Retention & Transfer of the New Skills, Knowledge, and/or Attitudes	Generalization	What will you do to enhance the retention & transfer of the new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes? 	·38 Provide remediation when the student exhibits incomplete or unsatisfactory performance. ·39 Provide job aids or memory (mnemonic) aids that students can use in the future to remind them of the knowledge or procedures, or that can guide them in the desired behavior. ·40 Provide recommendations of future knowledge or skills to acquire that build upon the current lesson. ·41 Provide ill-structured authentic problems that will aid the future transfer of the learned knowledge or skills.     		
* Adapted from:  Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .  
[More information available at http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/tree/treef.asp?start=1 ]

Lesson Planning Worksheet Using Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Subject: __________________  Unit:  ______________________________  Topic to be addressed: _____________________________________

Does Topic Require More Than 1 Class Period? ______    Length of Class Period: _________    (NOTE: This lesson plan should be for 1 Class Period)                             

Major Concepts and Facts, Procedures and Skills, or Attitudes students must learn: ___________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 
Gagne’s Events of Instruction * 	Theory/Reason Behind Planning for the Event	Guiding Question for Planning	Examples of How to Incorporate the Event	Your Answers to the Guiding Question (Instructional Strategies)	   
1. Gain Attention	Reception	How will you get and keep the students’ attention?


	·0	Begin with the question “What do you think”?
·1	Use novelty or creativity to present the topic.
·2	Relate the topic to a current event or a subject relevant to the students.


		   
2. Inform Learners of the Objectives	Expectancy	How will you inform your students of the lesson objectives?


	·3	Provide the written objectives or an outline as an advance organizer.
·4	Solicit their thoughts on what they would like to know or think they should know about the topic, then present what you think. (KWL charts: Know-Want to Know- Have Learned charts)
·5	Show a video of the desired performance.
·6	Provide a rubric for the activity or task.
		   
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge/Learning	Retrieval	How will you remind students of the applicable knowledge that they learned in the past, or their previous related experiences? 	·7	Review a previous lesson.
·8	Give a quiz or “pre-test” on the knowledge or skills they are to recall and use.
·9	Draw or have students draw a concept map of their current perceptions about the topic.
·10	Have students summarize the prerequisite knowledge and/or skills.
·11	Pose a discussion question to encourage students to think of related experiences.
		   
4. Present the Stimulus (content or learning activity)	Selective Perception	How will you teach the information or what type of learning activity or environment will you create to foster learning?
	·12	Give a lecture on the topic.
·13	Give a multimedia introduction to the new knowledge and/or skills.
·14	Present the content in story form.
·15	Provide a guest speaker.
·16	Present a problem or case and require students to research the content to determine a solution or analyze the case.
·17	Require students to take a self-paced tutorial to learn the content.








		   
5. Provide Guidance to the Learners	Semantic Encoding	How will you provide guidance (scaffolding, support) to the learners?



	·18	Demonstrate the skill or apply the knowledge as an example or non-example.
·19	Use questioning to help students exercise critical thinking skills.
·20	Model the desired behavior or thought processes (cognitive apprenticeship).
·21	Use teacher-student or peer-collaboration to conduct an experiment or try out the desired behavior.
·22	Use a physical model or concept maps to portray the relationships.







		   
6. Elicit Performance from the Learners 	Responding (also Retrieval)	What type of homework, practice, or learning activities will you provide to help the students learn?
	·23	Use role-plays based on authentic scenarios.
·24	Have students work through case studies or problem scenarios.
·25	Use simulations and games to practice.
·26	Provide homework.
·27	Have students complete projects or construct job aids that display the relevant skills or knowledge they are to have learned.
·28	Have students provide examples.







		   
7. Provide Feedback to the Learners	Reinforcement	What will you do to let the learners know how they’re doing? How will you correct, affirm, or encourage them?
	·29	Indicate whether student examples are correct/incorrect.
·30	Correct projects or papers.
·31	Have peers critique the performance or project.
·32	Suggest alternatives to achieve the same or different results.
·33	Pose “what if?” questions.









		   
8. Assess the Performance of the Learners	Retrieval	How will you know that the students have learned the material or can do the desired tasks?

	·34	Provide a test of the new knowledge, a skills mastery test, or opportunity to exhibit a changed attitude.
·35	Require the development of a project that demonstrates the desired behavior, or provides evidence of application of the learned concepts.
·36	Require students to suggest alternatives to a procedure, plan or product presented.
·37	Require the learner to construct a summary of the new information.




		   
9. Enhance the Retention & Transfer of the New Skills, Knowledge, and/or Attitudes	Generalization	What will you do to enhance the retention & transfer of the new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes?
	·38	Provide remediation when the student exhibits incomplete or unsatisfactory performance.
·39	Provide job aids or memory (mnemonic) aids that students can use in the future to remind them of the knowledge or procedures, or that can guide them in the desired behavior.
·40	Provide recommendations of future knowledge or skills to acquire that build upon the current lesson.
·41	Provide ill-structured authentic problems that will aid the future transfer of the learned knowledge or skills.




		 
* Adapted from:  Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .  
[More information available at http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/tree/treef.asp?start=1 ]

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Motivation in Computer Supported Adult Learning Environments:

Designing Online Learning to Support a Psychology of Becoming

First Words R…

…an attempt to define terms.

… a foundation for further communication.

… a way to become familiar.

I will define adult education as the mutual interaction of two or more adults for the purpose of enhancing knowledge and creating meaning.

Motivation I will define as an internal state of persons. Motivating factors can be external or internal to the persons involved. This paper takes as an assumption that human motivation and human inspiration are internal properties of persons affected by and affecting external situations.

Computer supported can mean any among a range of electronic facilitation mechanisms - from minimal (computers as an element of a learning experience) to maximal (computers as delivery system and sole medium for an educative experience).

Intuitive Imagination

Useful answers generate questions. Attempting to move beyond rationality, rediscovering motivation in the digital age, we are becoming comfortable with change, transition and growth.

It is a well-documented cliché that every man [sic] has his price. But it is just as true that most people have something that they won't do for money.

People entertain values, scripts and schema, all of which influence what they will and won't accept as motivating. (Petri 1981) Similarly, people respond to counter-motivating factors that will deter or stop them from doing, thinking and becoming. (Bauman 1995)

In the U.S. today, it is common practice to allow money to be considered as a motivating factor for participation in activity. Yet there are culturally determined values influencing what is considered appropriate to do for money. (Tarrant 1989) Whether or not money should be used as a motivating factor for the education of persons is a hotly debated issue. (Apple 1979, 1982) Not only is there a great deal of research confirming the malefficacy of reward systems on long term learning goals (Dweck 2000; Reeve 1996; Ryan and Deci 2000) but the issue begs the question: What is the value, purpose and meaning of the education of persons?

Questions have unique purposes. Some questions are not meant to be answered. Some questions function as Zen koans: to stimulate the growth of conscious awareness through the exercise of mental acuity. The result of a koan mind exercise is often a realization of what Ricoeur (1992) refers to as non-vicious circles and what Maslow (1955,1968,1971) calls self-actualization.

Ricoeur's analyses illuminate a cyclical inclusionism in cherished theoretical dichotomies. For Ricoeur, vicious circles are those that simply define their elements in terms of one other. Non-vicious circles are those that define their elements in terms of a continuing, progressive, mutual interaction. A vicious circle is an argument that results from dichotomous concepts explicated without an appreciation of the lived experience (the experienced cognition) through which their meanings take form.

Maslow explains (1968, p. 45) that there is a type of cognition which is the same as action; that there is a level of realization where beauty, truth and action merge. For the self-actualizing person, truth and beauty are synonymous with a call (a motivation) for action. For example, when your truth is that a child in your home is suffering, your moving into a state of action regarding her pain is predetermined by the understanding itself. In your thought-action you experience your self actualizing as childcarer. (Ricouer 1991;Velleman 1999)

We actualize our selves in relation to our understanding (knowledge, not simply information) of the outside world. (Arendt 1978a, 1978b; Bakhtin 1994) If we see ourselves as needing to receive from the world, we will behave accordingly to Maslow's D-needs (D-needs are deficiency needs, drives based on lack, as opposed to B-needs, being needs, "higher" needs like self-expression and love- Maslow 1955), Dweck's performance goals (Dweck 2000) and Dykman's validation needs (Dweck 2000). But what if we see ourselves as needing to give to the world? Beyond Maslow’s concept of need disinterest, and closer to Fromm’s conception of the being personality (Maslow 1968, p. 45; Fromm 1976, p. 34), we see an evolution in our awareness of our potential as creative contributors.

How can we account for generosity and generativity? By responding to our intuitive imagination we will discover (Maslow 1971) the processes necessary to describe these higher levels of educative experience (Dewey 1916). Then we will not only be able to describe compassionate intelligence, we may even be able to support and encourage its development.

The perspective I bring to this work is constructivist; both classic Vygotskian constructivist: what we can internalize must have first been experienced in the world, between and among others (Vygotsky 1962, 1993); and radical social constructivist: we have, as part of our social existence, the right, the responsibility and the fated inevitability of creating the world around us as we live in interaction with it. (Ruddick 1989; Weil 1992)

Education

Pedagogies value control in direct proportion to their culture's valuation of conformity. We are attempting to transcend dichotomies. (Maslow 1971, p. 158; Maslow 1968. p. 154) We are creating an experience of the space between being and becoming - that's where learning is. We are becoming aware of ourselves as lifelong learners.

Even though the essential purpose of any specific educative enterprise is not easy to categorize, delineate, explain or excuse, the essential nature of the educative enterprise divides neatly into two aspects: work and questioning. These aspects are not opposites, neither are they synonymous; and, most important for theory, they are meaningless in concrete terms without reference to one another.

Education is a natural act. (Leonard 1968) If, by some horrific accident, tomorrow we experience the immediate, complete dissolution of all school systems, learning would be very little affected. That very day people of all shapes, sizes, races, dispositions and ages would be explaining, guiding and teaching those in need of guidance. (Illich 1971) Learning is innate.

Mass education and state funded education are social and political commitments responding to a common value. (Apple 1979) Here, in the United States the purpose of our educational system is considered to be an integral link in the strategic preservation and maintenance of democracy and democratic principles. (Arendt 1963; Dewey 1916;Tarrant 1989)

As we analyze, systematize and advise on issues of education, we might attempt to stay in the light of these primary distinctions: 1) the natural occurrence of learning 2) the natural division of educational activities into categories of work and questioning and 3) the value of a democratic purpose for mass education initiatives.

Third Force Psychology

Trust builds on reciprocal understanding. Attempting to redefine the role of authority, discovering (Maslow) identity and response-ability (Perls), we are becoming comfortable with our selves.

As I research, I value any science filled with a love of life and persons, when the questions are filled with a respect for the perceived. Maslow and the league he calls Third Force psychology - Fromm, Rogers, Perls, Horney, Schweitzer (and many more!) - have argued eloquently for scientists to acknowledge, study and encourage the wholeness and dignity of persons. (Maslow, 1971; Rogers 1967, 1980)

These theorist-practitioners provide a useful, and poetic humanitarian response to the fascist project of creating "thea master race." (Bauman 1993) Third Force psychologists see each individual as containing the seed of their own becoming. Superiority is defined by Third Force psychologists as the result of the actualization of personal potential: If an individual is able to self-actualize, then they are, by this definition, their own superior, the best that they can be.

These thinkers have succeeded in what Maslow indicated they were attempting to do (Maslow 1968, p.13): They have bridged the chasm between the work of Behaviorist psychologists and the work of Freudian psychiatrists. Behaviorism is the study and manipulation of observable behavior. Freudianism is the study and manipulation of subconscious forces. Third Force psychologists introduce a relational dimension: the relationship between the therapist (teacher, scientist, researcher) and the patient (student, subject, interviewee). (Ellinor 1998)

The study and manipulation of interpersonal present-tense relationships influenced, perhaps even initiated, the disciplines of qualitative research, post-modern ethical thought, relativism, social constructivism, and conversational reality theory. The awareness of the importance of interpersonal and interobject relationships was itself inspired by advances in theoretical physics and the lived experiences of World War II. (Arendt 1954; Bauman 1995)

The radicalism of Third Force psychology consists in its almost anarchic rejection of authority. Authority is acknowledged as a force to be reckoned with, but neither a passive nor a normative acceptance of authority is considered a necessary component of psychological health. (Maslow 1971)

Both Behaviorism and Freudianism assume that psychological health is proportional to social conformity. The Third Force psychologists argue that a response is in relation to a stimulus; that, if a stimulus, environment, social system is excessively authoritarian, a conformist response is psychologically a sick choice.

Maslow quotes Fromm as saying, "Sickness consists essentially in wanting what is not good for us." (1971, p. 202) Behaviorist research makes it clear that we can force or trick people to behave in ways that are counter productive to their health and welfare. (Skinner 1971) Modern advertising has proven that it is possible to create appetites for toxic substances. Fascism shows us that people can be convinced to conform to values they would under less coercive circumstances consider heinous. csles (computer supported learning environments) could train people to choose against their own best interests.

In his paper on Artificial Intelligence, A Cognitive-Systemic reconstruction of Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization, Heylighen (1992, p. 18) implies that an individual's ability to make choices will affect the development of their attribution stance. "Fundamental dimensions of attribution include stability (is the cause likely to maintain?), control (is the subject capable to change the cause?), and locus (is the cause external or internal to the subject?)." Attribution stance is widely considered a critical factor in motivation.

Qualitative Research

Shapes reveal their maker. Healing paradigms, creating ecological awareness, we are becoming co-creators of knowledge, responsible and aware of our impact on one another.

Qualitative research is an emergent paradigm owing much of its rationale to the work of Third Force psychologists. In essence, what we are hoping to appreciatively analyze are ever-widening inter-affecting systems. For the purposes of research, limits are placed on the extensiveness of the systems being examined but, theoretically, systems reach infinity both on the microcosmic and the macrocosmic scale. (Davidson 1983)

Heylighen advises: "the general problem is that if holism as a reaction to reductionism is understood in a too simple-minded way, then any type of scientific analysis, of precise, formal modeling becomes meaningless. The main advantage of the systems approach as a scientific method is that it allows the integration [of] holistic and reductionist principles, leading to models where both "the whole is more than the sum of the parts" and "you must understand the behavior of the parts in order to understand the emergence of the whole" appl[y].… The conceptual framework of systems science appears particularly well suited for reformulating holistic theories, such as Maslow's, in a more precise, more explicit, more scientific way." (1992, p. 2)

Dweck's conception of the importance of an appreciation of incremental growth (2000) and Maslow's insistence on the existence in every individual of an intrinsic motivation to be themselves converge in qualitative research's emphasis on the validity of the individual case.

Participatory and collaborative design models are attempts to consciously formulate the co-creation of knowledge. (Papanek 1992) Theoretically, according to the position of Third Force psychologists, we have always been co-creating knowledge. But, because of our deeply held beliefs in hierarchically determined truth, social scientists were unable to discover the dynamics of healthy human systems. (Maslow 1968)

Heylighen states, that the "self actualizing person, … is basically confident about issues pertaining to the maintenance of his or her identity, and thus free to doubt about more abstract, more distant concepts and rules (and even to doubt about certain of the more basic aspects, if the rest of the system is stable enough to support this questioning)." (1992, p. 15) Questioning authority is a valid element of a democratic and humanist educational experience. (Swidler 1979) Questioning is both a skill that can be developed even unto an art form, as well as a legal right that must be supported in others as well as in ourselves if we are to maintain the mechanisms of political freedom. (Dewey 1916; Ratner, 1939; Tarrant 1989)

The cyber movements presently encouraging young students to participate in universal knowledge creation using traditional positivist research methods are a result of rejecting the mechanistic conception of the student as an empty, manipulable vessel. While an admirable attempt to encourage student autonomy (Boud 1988), the image of the researcher as a cog in a large machine grinding away at iterative knowledge creation (Maslow 1968) is reinforced by these exercises. We might, on the other hand, view facts as dynamic, and integrate progressively more complex participatory dynamics (otherwise known as conversations). (Freire 1973; Nussbaum 1997)

Maslow credits Perls with the notion of dynamic facts, facts that are malleable, that change according to perspective, perception and purpose (Maslow 1971, p. 114), facts that are interpretable, that are co-created. The interpretation of dynamic facts requires an answering, a co-responding (a cooperative response) dynamism and a careful examination of what Kurt Lewin called vectors. Learning to interpret the dynamics of relational interchange is a fundament of the discipline we call wisdom. (Ginzburg 1997; Riikonen and Smith 1997)

Perhaps the term self-actualization is misleading. Perhaps it is easier to understand self-actualization as one part of a unified field of motivational forces: at any moment, any choice has the potential to be self-actualizing depending upon the purpose (goal, motivation) operating at the time. (Maslow 1971, p. 44) Maslow says, "You can teach yourself to choose." (1971, p. 184) In that case, we can also teach others to choose. (Mezirow 1991)

A self-actualizing moment is one in which we are not motivated to impress others. (Maslow 1968, p. 200) This is confirmed by Carol Dweck's opinion that performance goals are essentially of a lower motivational order than learning goals. (Dweck 2000)

A self-actualizing moment is one in which the self transcends its immediate role and yet remains engaged in the world. (Maslow 1968, p. 90) The paradox is that the more self-centered a person's goals, the less self-actualizing they are; even though the D-needs are prepotent and necessary for survival, if they are not met satisfactorily, then self-actualization is an impossibility - the organism will remain stranded, obsessed with trying to attain subsistence. When we speak of learning and choices that support self-actualization, we are not talking about nurturing selfishness. We are talking about a state of mind wherein a realization of self interest is aligned with the realization of others' needs and interests. (Freire 1973; Parker 1985; Nussbaum 1990; Resnick, Levine et al. 1991; Shotter 1993; Ginzburg 1997)

Maslow (1968, pp. 238-9) explains how quantitative scientists' inability to admit that their feelings impact their experiments is an aspect of those same scientists' personal psychological distrust of human nature. (James 1977; Bateson 1972,1979) According to Maslow, our objectifying each other is a symptom of our personal inability to see ourselves as more than simply useful to one another. In Toward a Psychology of Being (1968), Maslow states that, "We must not fall into the trap of defining the good organism in terms of what [s]/he is "good for" as if [s]/he were an instrument rather than something in [her]/himself." (p. 199)

Qualitative research is an attempt to expand scientific discourse to include and respect a non-objectified notion of humanness. (Bauman 1993) Maslow suggests that by listening and observing while deeply committed and engaged, we may begin to discover not only our lowest D-need driven nature but our potential for self-actualization as individuals and as a species. (Maslow 1968, p. 10; Rogers 1967,1980)

Structural Ideology

All systems are embedded systems. Attempting sustainability, creating health, we are learning to support free and responsible behavior.

Maslow suggests in The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (1971, p. 51) that adult education might take as its goal becoming who we are. It is tempting to credit this point of view when discussing the new cyber buzz phrase, lifelong learning. If we consider learning to be a lifelong process one can only hope that we mean more than the occasional re-skilling necessary to meet changing market requirements. Lifelong learning connotes an activity sustaining the journey Maslow called self-actualization.

From a whole systems' perspective we know that there are no perfectly isolated systems. All systems include and subsume other systems. All systems are themselves contained. (Bateson 1972; Davidson 1983)

The significance of this principle of infinite encircling is in its action implications, necessitating close attention as factors are introduced into, or removed from, any existing system because all change initiates repercussions, not only in the immediate vicinity of the change but in all concentric and intersecting systems. Since everything that exists can be considered a currently functioning system, the problematic for system designers is not the fact of embeddedness but the degree and kind of interaction/communication between intersecting systems.

Human systems, for instance, an education system, are subsets of the category of living systems. (Miller 1995) Living systems can have one or more of the following purposes (i.e. relationships to intersecting systems):

* Symbiotic: Mutual interaction as a necessity for survival.
* Nurturing: Any degree of support from sustainable to self annihilating.
* Absorbing: Self aggrandizement regardless of the cost to the neighboring or host systems.
* Parasitic: Weakening or destroying its nurturant host system.
* Mutual exchange: Sharing - in the schoolyard sense.

Though the framework for computer supported learning environments (csles) vary from simple to complex, the relationships and interactions supported by the navigational structures and cognitive chunking must be varied, subtle, flexible and alterable if the design intention is to accommodate a rich and humanist model of the person (audience, user, participant, student, learner). (Freire 1973; Ricoeur 1986; Damon 1991; Collins and Mangieri 1992)

One very successful example of whole systems design is the world wide web (www). Not only has Berners-Lee donated his creation (an act of generosity following an act of generativity, both self-actualizing acts) to humankind; but Berners-Lee also only very subtly manipulated an already existing system (the ecological/holistic principle of gradual, attentively monitored change. (Berners-Lee 1999)

In a neural network (Levine and Leven 1992), of which class the www is a unique and powerful example, the principle purpose is the movement of information. Within the system itself there is no permanent change of state as a result of the transfer of data. The www is a nurturing system providing a means for nodes to communicate using any sort of interaction from mutual exchange (perhaps, in this case, the ideal mode of exchange) to absorbing or parasitic.

The beauty of a neural network design lies precisely in this feature: that all nodes are free to enter into any mode of relationship, leaving participants free to analyze interactions for their own purposes.

But what if people are malmotivated? According to Maslow and Third Force psychologists, malmotivation in human beings is the result of the frustration and denial of basic needs. (Maslow 1971) The expectation that everyone entering into an educational dialogue will be ready to participate fully and freely is a naïve assumption that can backfire into an unattainable performance goal.

Traditionally we have divided knowledge areas into learning or discipline domains. (Rush 1957) In particular it has been found over the experience of centuries of practice to be helpful to tier learning experiences. (Gagne 1977) Early learning and advanced learning tend to be most successful when exploratory methods are used. However, there is a great deal of practice and significant safety precautions (mental, emotional and physical) required in order to master even the fundamentals of any of the knowledge domains. (Degenhart 1982)

csles have proven themselves to be helpful for both repetitive skill (practice) exercises and for depth simulations. When behavior is to be trained along a particular pathway, practice is the best technique and computers are far more stable (and patient!), and resilient than human teachers for supervising these exercises. When guidance and attentive feedback can make a difference, designers can feel justified in insisting that the csle support face to face (f2f) interactions. (Bauman 1993; Choe 1989; Cissna and Anderson 1998; Freire 1973; Ginzburg 1997; Nussbaum 1997; Vygotsky 1962)

In The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (1971), Maslow says, "If an ultimate goal of education is self-actualization, then education ought to help people transcend the conditioning imposed upon them by their own culture and become world citizens." (p.177) The www gives us an opportunity to reorganize our thinking in a relational context. Certainly I am not suggesting that we renege on our obligation to teach and learn the traditions of individual cultures. I am suggesting that we are now technically able to teach culture in the context of relativity. (Berners-Lee 1999)

Structural Imagination

According to Von Bertalanffy, all systems show a "sensitive dependence on initial conditions." Imagining excellence often requires a reinterpretation of what we have already experienced. What we understand as possible, often the worst that has happened, can morph into an awareness of an ability to create new futures. (Arendt 1963, 1978a, 1978b)

The task of the designer is to imagine and template a future state of affairs. I would like to suggest that this task involves an awareness that everyone has an intrinsic need to imagine a future for themselves. I believe that the development and integration of these individual dreams is part of both cultural imperatives, and genuine survival imperatives.

Educational media can support an individual's need to self-actualize, by promoting choice at every level of design. We cannot simply expect that, when we are ready to "let" people make choices, they will have acquired the skills to do so. (Schwartz 2000) We need to teach choosing. Choosing according to basic/D-needs comes first. Then we can gradually model and scaffold more complex choice structures. An expert would be considered a person capable of exercising self-actualization within personal and political contexts of decision-making. csle is the perfect medium for developing/teaching/learning methods that will elicit an understanding of the meanings and values of choices.

The primary differential between an experience of autocracy and one of autonomy is choice: in an autocracy an individual is given very little choice whereas autonomy implies that an individual is capable of making choices and taking responsibility for the outcomes those choices manifest. (Arendt 1963, 1978a, 1978b) The educational systems’ designer has opportunities for initiating and supporting choice. In synchronous, f2f (face to face) learning environments, i.e. the classroom, a teacher is constantly making choices, changing tack, working with, against or around student inertia. Designers can attempt to formalize critical choice points (Lewin's vectors) so that courses enable variable directionality. (Choe 1989)

When educational technology is designed in the abstract, when an infrastructure to support a variety of educational experiences is desired, decision trees are necessary. But each decision point ought not preclude a re-evaluation when the direction of progression is understood. (Levine and Leven 1992)

Conversational reality (Shotter 1993) describes the process through which we create our understanding of the truth, of what is real, through our conversational interactions. (Resnick, Levine et al. 1991) Too often csles have created more rigid response mechanisms than those we experienced from our very worst classroom teachers. (Cissna and Anderson 1998)

To me, as a youngster, there was nothing more appalling than an obviously "canned" response from a teacher or an authority figure. A canned response, a rehearsed reaction, annihilates the possibility of mutuality, reciprocity or the co-creation of meaning. When my conversational partner is "phoning it in," when s/he responds inappropriately, I withdraw my trust and my creativity from the interaction. I become unmotivated and often malmotivated. I may attempt to ridicule or reject the message being delivered to me in an alienating manner.

Roger Schank’s research (Schank 1986) began as a tongue in cheek commentary on the predictability of right wing moral bigotry. It is possible to make a conversation with a closed minded person sound real in a Turing (Turing 1968) machine experiment/experience. Schank showed that it is possible to mimic dichotomized "thinking" with machine coded messaging. Somehow the humor of these Schank experiments has been lost in an avalanche of similarly closed-minded educational designs and systems. Click here, answer there, receive a boxed response. Do this, answer that, receive another premeditated response. Just because we can mimic a bad conversation, should that be our goal? (Dewey 1938)

Why do we even consider replacing teachers with computers? In many countries, since the late sixties, it has been the policy to restrict the freedom of teachers. Freedom of discussion and freedom of lesson plan creation have been routinely sabotaged for the stated purpose/value of increasing test scores and for some sort of demented national agenda of international competitiveness that would wish each country to produce the most smart people. As if smart people can be produced and counted like any other production item: so many cars, so much wheat, so many smart people. (Rose, 2000) This sort of logical objectification of students and learning is anathema from a Third Force psychological perspective. We are not only falling into the utilitarian trap of treating people as if they were things, we are equating learning not with a quality of experience but with statistical representations of test results.

As Orwell (1949) predicted, csles have been used to centralize control of education and dehumanize the process of learning. But there is no reason why they cannot also support responsive, self-actualizing, intrinsically motivational learning environments. Again, Berners-Lee’s experiment, the www, is a brilliant example of an open ended teaching tool. It has inspired millions of people to create a myriad of sites. Many people rely on the web for medical advice, commercial solace and even sexual and personal intimacy. Since the design of the web has caused a surge in global learning, why not take this as our model?

Heylighen takes into consideration that "no existing knowledge will be perfectly adapted to all the specific situations an autonomous system will encounter." He understands that a designer will have to acknowledge participants’ "need for external care or protection and the need for individual knowledge." (1992 p. 10)

Problem solving is a stable, structured form of questioning. According to Heylighen, "A problem is defined by a goal or an end, and by a possible means of reaching this end." (Ibid p. 13) Problem solving is an intermediate level of questioning. The articulation of undefined problems and temporary resolutions to complex ongoing challenge scenarios, are appropriate exercises for more advanced students,.

The enlightenment challenge included a commitment to universal emancipation and a concomitant commitment to universal education. We cannot know ourselves in a vacuum, we know ourselves by the choices we make and the results of those choices. What I would like to see in csle is an attempt to realize a diversity, an ecological metaphor wherein it is acknowledged that all students have both basic and higher needs. Dignity and choice-making styles originate from the interaction between environmental conditioning and internal personality and physiological needs. (Vygotsky 1993; Wertsch 1985) If we could accept the shared revelatory nature of experience, we might commit ourselves to participating in and thereby creating the environments necessary to support genuinely democratic systems.

Why are internet sex sites so popular? (Sex and commercialism presently dominate the internet, more people "visit" those types of sites than other more informational or educational or cultural sites) Because as a species we are still trying to satisfy D-needs. (Maslow 1968, p. 183) In one of the Winnie the Pooh stories (Milne 1926), Tigger has a significant adventure: Having noticed that everyone eats something particular, Tigger wants to know what Tiggers eat. It takes a long time for Tigger to learn how to satisfy this D-need. His search leads him to find out many things that will be the foundation for the next question we hope he comes to ask himself: What do Tiggers contribute?

I am motivated by having been born in an era of heroes. As a young person I heard John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Angela Davis, Eldridge Cleaver, Abbie Hoffman and Mario Cuomo – and many others. I was a little girl when JFK said, "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country." That statement has all the beauty and fire (motivating power) of the greatest speeches of Churchill and FDR.

For most of the twentieth century, people were called upon to search their minds and hearts, their psychology and their soul to find what they could contribute to a world often in crisis, a world torn between forces of toxic domination and hopes for a viable, healthy future. Though presently we are blessed to be living in a relatively peaceful world, I think we might realize that there is still a struggle between the forces of domination and those hopeful for a more egalitarian sustainable social ecology.

In The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (1971, p. 88), Maslow retells an O. Henry story: A young man, desirous of becoming intelligent, memorizes the encyclopedia. This young man is an object of ridicule for confusing intelligence with memorization. Yet our present educational system is producing just such objects of ridicule - by the millions. In the same book (Ibid, pp. 174-5) Maslow tells a story about Upton Sinclair, one of America’s great novelists: Sinclair, finding he had no money to finish his studies, read in the college handbook, a school rule stating that a student who failed a class that had already been paid for, was entitled to take another, free of charge. Sinclair finished his education by failing all his courses. Our present system of education would see neither humor nor dignity in Sinclair’s actions. Can we?

In Toward a Psychology of Being (1968, p.168), Maslow says, "People with intelligence must use their intelligence, people with eyes must use their eyes, people with the capacity to love have the impulse to love and the need to love in order to feel healthy." We all know that computers were invented to take the tedium out of human endeavor. I would like to see educational designers commit to that as a guiding purpose throughout.

Last Words R

… an attempt to create harmony and honor a temporary completion.

There is an old cliché that goes - beauty is as beauty does. If we acknowledge Maslow’s contention that beauty, truth and goodness merge at the highest levels of personal actualization, then it might be just as true to say that truth is as truth does and goodness is as goodness does.

If we lead people by the nose to find truth, then the truth for them will be authoritarian. If instead we model our truth as active participants in the co-creation of meaning, not only will we benefit from the generosity of others, as we will be open to an inter-change, we will be answering the challenge to co-create a democratic environment. In The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (1971), Maslow calls this fabulous experience of creating each other, through our interactions with one another, "reciprocal isomorphism." (p. 161)

Bibliography

Apple, M. (1979). Ideology and curriculum. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Apple, M. (1982). Education and power. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Arendt, H. (1954). Between past and future. New York, Faber & Faber.
Arendt, H. (1963). On revolution. London, Penguin.
Arendt, H. (1978a). The life of the mind: thinking. New York, Secker & Warburg.
Arendt, H. (1978b). The life of the mind: willing. New York, Secker & Warburg.
Bakhtin, M. M. (1994). The dialogic imagination: four essays by M.M. Bakhtin. Austin, University of Texas Press. Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind. New York, Ballantine Books.
Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: a necessary unity. New York, Bantam Books.
Bauman, Z. (1993). Postmodern ethics. London, Blackwell.
Bauman, Z. (1995). Life in fragments: essays in postmodern morality. London, Blackwell.
Berners-Lee, T. (1999). Weaving the web: the past, present and future of the world wide web by its inventor. London, Orion Business Books.
Boud, D. (1988). Developing student autonomy in learning. London, Kogan Page.
Choe, W. (1989). Toward an aesthetic criticism of technology. New York, Peter Lang Publisher.
Cissna, K. N. and R. Anderson (1998). "Theorizing about dialogic moments: the Buber-Rogers position and postmodern themes." Communication Theory 8(1): 63-104.
Collins, C. and J. Mangieri, Eds. (1992). Teaching thinking. Hillsdale, New York, Lawrence Erlbaum.
Damon, W. (1991). Problems of direction in socially shared cognition. Perspectives on socially shared cognition. L. B. Resnick, J. M. Levine and S. D. Teasley. Washington D.C., American Psychological Association: 384-398.
Davidson, M. (1983). Uncommon sense: the life and thought of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, father of general systems theory. Los Angeles, JP Tarcher Inc.
Degenhart, M. A. B. (1982). Education and the value of knowledge,
Allen and Unwin. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education, MacMillan. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. new York, Collier-MacMillan.
Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-Theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia, Taylor and Francis.
Ellinor, L. (1998). Dialogue: rediscover the transforming power of conversation. New York, John Wiley and Sons.
Freire, P. (1973). Education: the practice of freedom. London, Writers and Readers.
Fromm, E. (1976). To have or to be? New York, Harper and Row.
Gagne, R. M. (1977). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Ginzburg, J. C. (1997). Healing through meeting: Martin Buber's conversational approach to psychotherapy. London, Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Heylighen, F. (1992). "A cognitive-systemic reconstruction of Maslow's theory of self-actualization." Behavioral Science 37: 37-58.
Illich, I. (1971). Deschooling society. London, Penguin.
James, W. (1977). The Writings of William James. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Leonard, G. (1968). Education and ecstasy. New York, Delacourte Press.
Levine, D. S. and S. J. Leven, Eds. (1992). Motivation and emotion and goal direction in neural networks. Hillsdale, N.Y., Lawrence Erlbaum.
Maslow, A. H. (1955). Deficiency motivation and growth motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York, D. Van Norstrand.
Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York, Viking Press.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Miller, J. G. (1995). Living systems. Boulder, Co., University Press of Colorado.
Milne, A. A. (1926). Winnie the Pooh. New York, E.P. Dutton.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1990). Love's knowledge: essays on philosophy and literature. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1997). Cultivating humanity: a classical defense of reform in liberal education. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.
Orwell, G. (1949). Nineteen eighty four. New York, Secker & Warburg.
Papanek, V. (1992). Design for the real world: Human ecology and social change. Chicago, Academy Chicago Publishers.
Parker, J. H. (1985). Social logics: conversations and groups in everyday life. Lanham, Maryland, University Press of America.
Petri, H. L. (1981). Motivation: theory, research. Belmont, California, Wadsworth Publishing.
Ratner, J., Ed. (1939). Intelligence in the modern world: John Dewey's philosophy. New York, Random House.
Reeve, J. M. (1996). Motivating others: nurturing inner motivational resources. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
Resnick, L. B., J. M. Levine, et al., Eds. (1991). Perspectives on socially shared cognition. Washington D.C., American Psychological Association.
Ricoeur, P. (1986). Lectures on ideology and utopia. New York, Columbia University Press.
Ricoeur, P. (1991). From text to action. Evanston, Ohio, Northwestern University Press.
Ricoeur, P. (1992). Oneself as another. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Riikonen, E. and G. Smith (1997). Re-imagining therapy: living conversations and relational knowing. London, Sage.
Rogers, C. (1967). On becoming a person, Constable. Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston, Houghton Mifflin.
Rose, T. (2000). "A social construction of intelligent systems design: a Vygotskian-Constructivist literature review." Diversity Studies 1(1): http://www.2cyberwhelm.org/diversity/express/pdf/design.pdf
Ruddick, S. (1989). Maternal thinking: towards a politics of peace. London, The women's press ltd.
Rush, R. (1957). The doctrines of the great educators. New York, MacMillan.
Ryan, R. M. and E. L. Deci (2000). "Self-determination theory and the facilitaion of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being." American Psychologist 55(1): 68-78.
Schank, R. C. (1986). Explanation patterns: understanding mechanically and creatively. Hillsdale, N.Y.,, Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schwartz, B. (2000). "Self-determination:the tyranny of freedom." American Psychologist 55(1): 79-88.
Shotter, J. (1993). Conversational realities: Constructing life through language. London, Sage Publications.
Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. London, Penguin.
Swidler, A. (1979). Organization without authority. Cambridge, Ma, Harvard.
Tarrant, J. M. (1989). Democracy and education. London, Gower.
Turing, A. M. (1968). Intelligent machinery. Cybernetics. C. R. Evans and A. D. F. Robertson, University City Press: 26-54.
Velleman, D. J. (1999). "Love as a moral emotion." Ethics 109(2): 338-374.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, Ma, MIT.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1993). Problems of general psychology. London, Plenum Press.
Weil, P. (1992). The art of living in peace. New York, Unesco.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, Ma, Harvard.

http://2cyberwhelm.org/temirose/papers/maslow.html

The Need for Flexible Alternatives to Print
By: CAST (2006)
An important change in special education law in 2004 was the inclusion of NIMAS, the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard. This new regulation requires educational publishers to provide textbooks and other print materials in a digital format, so that students who have trouble with print can access the curriculum.
The Need for Flexible Alternatives to Print
By: CAST (2006)
An important change in special education law in 2004 was the inclusion of NIMAS, the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard. This new regulation requires educational publishers to provide textbooks and other print materials in a digital format, so that students who have trouble with print can access the curriculum.
For many students with disabilities, the limitations of print technology raise barriers to access, and therefore to learning. Following the passage of the IDEA in 1997, it has become essential that all students have access to the general curriculum, and thus to the print materials of which it is composed.
For students who cannot see the words or images on a page, cannot hold a book or turn its pages, cannot decode the text or cannot comprehend the syntax that supports the written word may each experience different challenges, and they may each require different supports to extract meaning from information that is "book bound." For each of them, however, there is a common barrier - the centuries-old fixed format of the printed book.
Very few students with disabilities presently have access to the accessible books they need. There are several reasons for that. In some cases, the problem is technical - schools do not have the technology they need to properly provide accessible versions to students, even if they had such versions. In other cases, the problem is ignorance - many teachers and schools do not understand the issue of access or the potential solutions that are available.
But for many students the problem is a frustrating distribution system; students can't get the accessible materials they need in a timely fashion. Present policies and procedures for disseminating accessible materials are archaic and inefficient, raising barriers rather than opportunities.
The Benefits of a Standard Source File
While there are many barriers to accessibility, the problems that are caused by multiple formats are particularly frustrating. The adoption of a common, or standard, format is a simplifying step that has been crucial to progress in many other fields - from railroads (adopting a common track gauge), to video technology (adopting a common format for DVD, and HDTV). Similarly, progress in addressing the needs of students with disabilities has been enhanced the United States Department of Education's endorsement of a common National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard. With that single change, a number of barriers at many points in the educational system can now be addressed.
Reprinted with permission from the Center for Applied Special Technology, www.cast.org.
What Makes Differentiated Instruction Successful?
By: Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000)
Differentiation means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction.
What Makes Differentiated Instruction Successful?
By: Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000)
Differentiation means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction.
A simple answer is that students in the elementary grades vary greatly, and if teachers want to maximize their students' individual potential, they will have to attend to the differences.
There is ample evidence that students are more successful in school and find it more satisfying if they are taught in ways that are responsive to their readiness levels (e.g., Vygotsky, 1986), interests (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi, 1997) and learning profiles (e.g., Sternberg, Torff, & Grigorenko, 1998).
Another reason for differentiating instruction relates to teacher professionalism. Expert teachers are attentive to students' varied learning needs (Danielson, 1996); to differentiate instruction, then, is to become a more competent, creative, and professional educator.
There is no recipe for differentiation. Rather, it is a way of thinking about teaching and learning that values the individual and can be translated into classroom practice in many ways. Still, the following broad principles and characteristics are useful in establishing a defensible differentiated classroom:
· Assessment is ongoing and tightly linked to instruction.
Teachers are hunters and gatherers of information about their students and how those students are learning at a given point. Whatever the teachers can glean about student readiness, interest, and learning helps the teachers plan next steps in instruction.
· Teachers work hard to ensure "respectful activities" for all students.
Each student's work should be equally interesting, equally appealing, and equally focused on essential understandings and skills. There should not be a group of students that frequently does "dull drill" and another that generally does "fluff." Rather, everyone is continually working with tasks that students and teachers perceive to be worthwhile and valuable.
· Flexible grouping is a hallmark of the class.
Teachers plan extended periods of instruction so that all students work with a variety of peers over a period of days. Sometimes students work with like-readiness peers, sometimes with mixed-readiness groups, sometimes with students who have similar interests, sometimes with students who have different interests, sometimes with peers who learn as they do, sometimes randomly, and often with the class as a whole. In addition, teachers can assign students to work groups, and sometimes students will select their own work groups. Flexible grouping allows students to see themselves in a variety of contexts and aids the teacher in "auditioning" students in different settings and with different kinds of work (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999).
References
References
Click the "References" link above to hide these references.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life. New York: Basic Books.
Excerpted from: Tomlinson, C. A. (August, 2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the Elementary Grades. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.
Grouping Students Who Struggle With Reading
By: Sharon Vaughn, Marie Tejero Hughes, Sally Watson Moody, and Batya Elbaum (2001)
There are a variety of grouping formats that have been proven effective for teaching reading to students with learning disabilities: whole class, small group, pairs, and one-on-one. This article summarizes the research and implications for practice for using each of these grouping formats in the general education classroom.
Groupings That Work for Students With Disabilities
By: Jane Burnette (1999)
Peer tutoring, cross-age tutoring, and small learning groups have been shown by research to be effective for teaching reading to students with and without learning disabilities. This articles affirms that using a variety of grouping formats is preferable to whole class instruction or ability grouping.
Tips for Inclusive Practice
By: National Institute for Urban School Improvement (2000)
Inclusive classrooms are classrooms that revolve around individualizing instruction. This list of classroom practices for including students with disabilities can also serve as a roadmap for improving the education of all children.
Using Collaborative Strategic Reading
By: Janette K. Klingner and Sharon Vaughn (1998)
Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) teaches students to use comprehension strategies while working cooperatively. Student strategies include previewing the text; giving ongoing feedback by deciding "click" (I get it) or "clunk" (I don't get it) at the end of each paragraph; "getting the gist" of the most important parts of the text; and "wrapping up" key ideas. Find out how to help students of mixed achievement levels apply comprehension strategies while reading content area text in small groups.
What Is Differentiated Instruction?
By: Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000)
Differentiation means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction.

Teaching All Children
By: National Institute for Urban School Improvement (2000)
From tailored learning experiences to flexible school structures, there are certain characteristics of instruction that is designed to meet the needs of individual students. Learn about these characteristics in this overview of what it means to teach every child.

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 "Education 2007 at a Glance" report for the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, http://www.oecd.org) Mitchell Weisburgh writes:  The data shows that the US education system substantially favors those who can afford the best schools and who can afford to go to college. Then, the US economy holds the largest rewards for those who have graduated from college, and the biggest penalties for those who do not complete high school, providing few outlets or second chances to cross that gap upon leaving school. Other developed countries appear to be rapidly expanding their university-educated, but without the education spending and income disparities of the US.  (Oct. 3, 2007, PILOTed newsletter, p. 1)  (Full report (available at http://academicbiz.typepad.com/piloted/).  Education is one of the most significant sources of opportunity in a society; however, there are many ways in which these opportunities are denied populations through a lack of educational equity.

Check out these other ~TiddlyWiki resources from http://www.giffmex.org/bloghome.html:
*[[TiddlyWiki in Action|http://giffmex.tiddlyspot.com]],  a showcase of how ~TiddlyWiki is being used around the world.
*[[BibblyWiki|http://www.giffmex.org/bibblywiki.html]] - uses ~TiddlyWiki to organize bibliographies, book notes and personal libraries. Also in [[Spanish|http://www.giffmex.org/bibblywikiespanol.html]].
*[[Giffr|http://www.giffmex.org/giffr.html]] - a photo organizer in TW format.
*[[Biblioteca Biblica Giffmex, NT|http://www.giffmex.org/ntindices.html]] - An expanding library of Spanish resources on the New Testament.

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//}}}

This is a major overhaul of My Notes. I was never satisfied with the original version. The "simple" setup really wasn't. So I finally fixed all the pet peeves I had with it. Here are the features of version 2.0:
*Be amazed as you ''create new topics and note-types from the right-hand menu'' with one click.
*Tremble with glee as you ''assign topics and note-types to a note with handy drop-down menus'', and hit 'refresh' to see them automatically added to the menus to the left.
*Exult and revel in the ''new note-types'' at your disposal. See "Notes by type" to the left to see the list. As I said above, you can add more.
*Rejoice and make merry, too - your My Notes 2.0 is ''upgraded to ~TiddlyWiki version 2.3''.
*''New to version 2.02'' - note type indexes are now automatically sorted by topic as you add them, to facilitate your search for your notes (see HowTo for an example). And we added a few extra formatting options - Woo-hoo!

See [[features|Features of My Notes TiddlyWiki]] and [[instructions|How to use 'My Notes TiddlyWiki']] for more details on how to use this version. If you have your notes in the old version and want to transfer them, see [[Upgrade to My Notes TiddlyWiki 2.0]]

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

Peggy Quesenberry

Lesson 11 – Scenario:  Pre-Assessing Learning Needs

Instructions:
Complete Parts 1 and 2 of this scenario activity and post your work to the Lesson 11 Discussion Board Forum as an attachment.  Do this by Thursday midnight of the lesson week.
Read the work of your course peers and post a response to at least one other post by Saturday midnight of the lesson week.
This activity and your discussion board post and reply are worth a total of 10 points.

PART 1
Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow in the space below, and then continue to page 2 for Part 2 of the assignment.  

You are just about to begin a new school year.&nbsp; You have been given a roster of 112 students among your five classes (none are AP courses).&nbsp; There have been some 'leveling' placements due to the fact that 17 of your students are in other AP courses.&nbsp; Those students appear to be spread between two of your classes. You're not sure of the abilities of the students in any of your other classes, except that a Special Education teacher has been assigned to one of your classes.&nbsp; Before the first day of school, you need to have a handle of your student population.&nbsp; 

How will you go about investigating the intellectual make-up of your five classes?&nbsp; 
Then, how will you fine tune those initial findings?&nbsp; 
What data do you need to gather on each of your students?&nbsp; 
Where will you go to find that data?&nbsp; 
Are there specific assessments you can administer to gain knowledge of your students' abilities and weaknesses within the first few weeks of school?&nbsp;

   




PART 2 - 
Listed below are the previous year’s reading scores for a few of your students.  Imagine that you have been informed that all teachers are responsible for making sure that at least 77% of students pass the reading SOL, regardless of subject area (a score of 400 or above is passing). Answer the following:
  
In the chart below, which students are having trouble with this challenge and how can you help them? 
Write one or two objectives to indicate the competencies you believe they should develop to succeed.  (Note: think about how you can provide reading practice and reading skills instruction in your content area.)

 
Eighth Grade Student Reading Data
2007-2008	   
Students	English Report
Card Grade
May 06	English Report
Card
Grade
May 07 	RPI
Sept 05	RPI
Feb 06	Benchmark
Reading
Nov 06	Benchmark
Reading
Feb 07	SOL
Reading
May 06	SOL
Reading
May 07	Stanford
9 Eng
Sept 04	   
Courtney	B-	B	72	78	73	82	475	425	80	   
Conner	A	A-	82	88	85	89	525	548	88	   
Aerial	C-	C-	65	68	70	74	401	412	66	   
Karl	D	D-	58	60	62	59	366	370	56	   
Tabitha	B+	B	60	64	86	88	398	405	64	 
Note:
RPI =  Reading Progress Indicator (criterion, diagnostic reading test):  scored out of 100.  This test has 50 questions, modeled in the SOL format.
Benchmark = Test that mimics VA SOL test; published by adopted textbook company.
SOL =  400 and above is ‘passing’  (State DOE considers any student in the 375 to 425 in the “recoverable” area of remediation for SOL success.)
Stanford 9 =  (Norm-referenced) Based on 100 score.
For your school to meet AYP in Reading during the 2007-2008 school year, you will need 77% of your students to pass their Reading SOL.  See table below. 

AYP: Annual Measurable Objectives for Reading and Language Arts
 
2001-02	2002-03	2003-04	2004-05	2005-06	2006-07	2007-08	2008-09	2009-10	2010-11	2011-12	2012-13	2013-14	   
Starting
Point 	&nbsp;	&nbsp;	Initial
Goal	&nbsp;	&nbsp;	Initial
Goal	&nbsp;	&nbsp;	Initial
Goal	&nbsp;	&nbsp;	Goal	   
60.7%	61%	61%	65%	69%	73%	77%	81%	85%	89%	93%	97%	100%	 
This table shows Virginia’s annual measurable objectives for reading and language arts. For a school or school division to have made AYP during 2004-2005 at least 65 percent of students overall and students in each subgroup must have demonstrated proficiency on Standards of Learning (SOL) tests and other approved assessments in reading and language arts.

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

Click here for more information
Pecquet - Teaching Philosophy

TEACHING PHILOSOPHY

The 19th-century Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard once wrote in his personal journal, “I must find a truth that is true for me . . . the idea for which I can live or die.” Additionally, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche further contended that individuals must decide which situations are to count as true and real. As a teacher at Hanks, it is my goal to guide and motivate any and all students to achieve success through both traditional means of right and wrong, but moreso, as free-thinkers in a diverse and complex society. I am confident that a student justifying their thoughts and actions through self-assessment and self-evaluation prepares them for state exit requirements, school board requirements, district requirements, campus requirements, and classroom requirements.

It is with this intention that I see the essence of education as being a student’s choice. The nature of “the learner” must be unique, free-choosing, responsible, and made up of intellect as well as emotion. The unique capacities of each individual student must be assessed, monitored, and given free-range to accomplish their academic and human needs. Although scholars will contend that Abraham Maslow’s theory of Self-Actualization can never be achieved, I know that the goal of the teacher, campus, and school district should be to guide each student in the process of putting into action the individual student’s potential talents -- be it in math, science, language arts, social studies and even athletics. This speech communication class is specifically structured to allow all students interdisciplinary goals as well as any other goals set forth by law.

It is my goal to create a democratic classroom where students are able to make their own decisions regarding themes which are important to their generation. Rather than a teacher being the “correct voice of the classroom,” it is my need to create a more “facilitator/director” approach to foster individual and group learning.

At the basis of this concept, it is my hope that all students leaving my classroom will be independent problem-solvers, group workers, and life-long learners motivated to pursue their interests outside of the classroom. Perhaps the most prominent theme in this philosophy is that of choice. Most individuals do not have a fixed nature as high school students. “Existence precedes essence,” as French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre once wrote to several of his protegees.

As a concerned educator, I feel the importance of this “choice concept” must not stop prematurely. With this premise, it is then shall be my ethical responsibility to teach students that they must accept the risk and the responsibility of following their commitment wherever it may lead them.

Too often, the “right answer system” insists that there is a single correct answer to every question in basic education. Students do not have any control over what the right answer is nor do they have control over which questions to ask. Questions and answers are usually doled out by the teacher. In today’s system, control of the curriculum is centralized. The right answer is found in the standardized test and is delivered to the classroom by way of the fixed curricula. Answers are not selected not so much because they are important to teach as because they are easy to assess. Because there is a fundamental need for the status quo system as a knowledge base in specific content areas, I willingly and gladly accept the challenge to teach all of the state requirements that is required by our currently mandated curriculum to all of my students without prejudice or bias. However, these requirements are minimal level mastery and the academic achievement in for any district, campus, and classroom must be challenged further in such a diverse and technological society.

What many classes are teaching through this “right answer system” is that the formula is the key to success in school. They come to believe that reasoning without the formula is futile, even though this could not be farther from the case in real life. The stress that comes from this phenomenon is an inhibitor to the true learning process. No one can learn if they are afraid to be wrong.

Unfortunately for students, life isn’t a multiple choice test. This laboratory in my classroom may not change the entire educational system, nor should it. However, it will give both higher level thinkers and lower level thinkers opportunities to explore answers beyond doors which are meaningful to them moreso than any teacher.
WebSpawner Page Machine
BACK TO HOMEPAGE
Send E-Mail to: danielpecquet@web.com
Free Webpages This page created using the webpage creation facilities of Webspawner.
Copyright © 2000 . All Rights Reserved
http://www.webspawner.com/users/teachphilo

!Removing unwanted note topics
#Open the 'Notes by topic' menu to the left, and click on the topic you don't want. 
#Double-click to go into edit mode, and delete the tiddler.
#Hit the 'refresh' button to the right to see the menu update automatically.
!Removing unwanted note types
#Open the 'Notes by type' menu to the left, and click on the note type you don't want.
#Double-click to go into edit mode, and delete the tiddler.
#Hit the 'refresh' button to the right to see the menu update automatically.

/***
|Name|SearchOptionsPlugin|
|Source|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#SearchOptionsPlugin|
|Documentation|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#SearchOptionsPluginInfo|
|Version|2.6.1|
|Author|Eric Shulman - ELS Design Studios|
|License|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#LegalStatements <br>and [[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/]]|
|~CoreVersion|2.1|
|Type|plugin|
|Requires||
|Overrides|Story.prototype.search, TiddlyWiki.prototype.search, config.macros.search.onKeyPress|
|Description|extend core search function with additional user-configurable options|
Extend core search function with additional user-configurable options including generating a ''list of matching tiddlers'' instead of immediately displaying all matches.
!!!!!Documentation
>see [[SearchOptionsPluginInfo]]
!!!!!Configuration
<<<
<<option chkSearchTitles>> Search in titles
<<option chkSearchText>> Search in tiddler text
<<option chkSearchTags>> Search in tags
<<option chkSearchFields>> Search in data fields
<<option chkSearchShadows>> Search shadow tiddlers
<<option chkSearchTitlesFirst>> Show title matches first
<<option chkSearchByDate>> Sort matching tiddlers by date
<<option chkSearchList>> Show list of matches in [[SearchResults]]
<<option chkSearchIncremental>> Incremental (key-by-key) searching
<<<
!!!!!Revisions
<<<
2007.02.17 [2.6.1] added redefinition of config.macros.search.onKeyPress() to restore check to bypass key-by-key searching (i.e., when chkSearchIncremental==false), which had been unintentionally removed with v2.6.0
|please see [[SearchOptionsPluginInfo]] for additional revision details|
2005.10.18 [1.0.0] Initial Release
<<<
!!!!!Code
***/
//{{{
version.extensions.searchOptions = {major: 2, minor: 6, revision: 1, date: new Date(2007,2,17)};

if (config.options.chkSearchTitles===undefined) config.options.chkSearchTitles=true;
if (config.options.chkSearchText===undefined) config.options.chkSearchText=true;
if (config.options.chkSearchTags===undefined) config.options.chkSearchTags=true;
if (config.options.chkSearchFields===undefined) config.options.chkSearchFields=true;
if (config.options.chkSearchTitlesFirst===undefined) config.options.chkSearchTitlesFirst=false;
if (config.options.chkSearchList===undefined) config.options.chkSearchList=false;
if (config.options.chkSearchByDate===undefined) config.options.chkSearchByDate=false;
if (config.options.chkSearchIncremental===undefined) config.options.chkSearchIncremental=true;
if (config.options.chkSearchShadows===undefined) config.options.chkSearchShadows=false;

if (config.optionsDesc) {
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchTitles="Search in tiddler titles";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchText="Search in tiddler text";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchTags="Search in tiddler tags";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchFields="Search in tiddler data fields";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchShadows="Search in shadow tiddlers";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchTitlesFirst="Search results show title matches first";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchList="Search results show list of matching tiddlers";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchByDate="Search results sorted by modification date ";
	config.optionsDesc.chkSearchIncremental="Incremental searching";
} else {
	config.shadowTiddlers.AdvancedOptions += "\n<<option chkSearchTitles>> Search in tiddler titles"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchText>> Search in tiddler text"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchTags>> Search in tiddler tags"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchFields>> Search in tiddler data fields"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchShadows>> Search in shadow tiddlers"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchTitlesFirst>> Search results show title matches first"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchList>> Search results show list of matching tiddlers"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchByDate>> Search results sorted by modification date"
		+"\n<<option chkSearchIncremental>> Incremental searching";
}

if (config.macros.search.reportTitle==undefined)
	config.macros.search.reportTitle="SearchResults";

config.macros.search.onKeyPress = function(e)
{
	if(!e) var e = window.event;
	switch(e.keyCode)
		{
		case 13: // Ctrl-Enter
		case 10: // Ctrl-Enter on IE PC
			config.macros.search.doSearch(this);
			break;
		case 27: // Escape
			this.value = "";
			clearMessage();
			break;
		}
	if (config.options.chkSearchIncremental) {
		if(this.value.length > 2)
			{
			if(this.value != this.getAttribute("lastSearchText"))
				{
				if(config.macros.search.timeout)
					clearTimeout(config.macros.search.timeout);
				var txt = this;
				config.macros.search.timeout = setTimeout(function() {config.macros.search.doSearch(txt);},500);
				}
			}
		else
			{
			if(config.macros.search.timeout)
				clearTimeout(config.macros.search.timeout);
			}
	}
}
//}}}

//{{{
Story.prototype.search = function(text,useCaseSensitive,useRegExp)
{
	highlightHack = new RegExp(useRegExp ? text : text.escapeRegExp(),useCaseSensitive ? "mg" : "img");
	var matches = store.search(highlightHack,config.options.chkSearchByDate?"modified":"title","excludeSearch");
	if (config.options.chkSearchByDate) matches=matches.reverse(); // most recent changes first
	var q = useRegExp ? "/" : "'";
	clearMessage();
	if (!matches.length) {
		if (config.options.chkSearchList) discardSearchResults();
		displayMessage(config.macros.search.failureMsg.format([q+text+q]));
	} else {
		if (config.options.chkSearchList) 
			reportSearchResults(text,matches);
		else {
			var titles = []; for(var t=0; t<matches.length; t++) titles.push(matches[t].title);
			this.closeAllTiddlers(); story.displayTiddlers(null,titles);
			displayMessage(config.macros.search.successMsg.format([matches.length, q+text+q]));
		}
	}
	highlightHack = null;
}

TiddlyWiki.prototype.search = function(searchRegExp,sortField,excludeTag)
{
	var candidates = this.reverseLookup("tags",excludeTag,false,sortField);

	// scan for matching titles first...
	var results = [];
	if (config.options.chkSearchTitles) {
		for(var t=0; t<candidates.length; t++)
			if(candidates[t].title.search(searchRegExp)!=-1)
				results.push(candidates[t]);
		if (config.options.chkSearchShadows)
			for (var t in config.shadowTiddlers)
				if ((t.search(searchRegExp)!=-1) && !store.tiddlerExists(t))
					results.push((new Tiddler()).assign(t,config.shadowTiddlers[t]));
	}
	// then scan for matching text, tags, or field data
	for(var t=0; t<candidates.length; t++) {
		if (config.options.chkSearchText && candidates[t].text.search(searchRegExp)!=-1)
			results.pushUnique(candidates[t]);
		if (config.options.chkSearchTags && candidates[t].tags.join(" ").search(searchRegExp)!=-1)
			results.pushUnique(candidates[t]);
		if (config.options.chkSearchFields && store.forEachField!=undefined) // requires TW2.1 or above
			store.forEachField(candidates[t],
				function(tid,field,val) { if (val.search(searchRegExp)!=-1) results.pushUnique(candidates[t]); },
				true); // extended fields only
	}
	// then check for matching text in shadows
	if (config.options.chkSearchShadows)
		for (var t in config.shadowTiddlers)
			if ((config.shadowTiddlers[t].search(searchRegExp)!=-1) && !store.tiddlerExists(t))
				results.pushUnique((new Tiddler()).assign(t,config.shadowTiddlers[t]));

	// if not 'titles first', or sorting by modification date,  re-sort results to so titles, text, tag and field matches are mixed together
	if(!sortField) sortField = "title";
	var bySortField=function (a,b) {if(a[sortField] == b[sortField]) return(0); else return (a[sortField] < b[sortField]) ? -1 : +1; }
	if (!config.options.chkSearchTitlesFirst || config.options.chkSearchByDate) results.sort(bySortField);

	return results;
}

// REPORT GENERATOR
if (!window.reportSearchResults) window.reportSearchResults=function(text,matches)
{
	var title=config.macros.search.reportTitle
	var q = config.options.chkRegExpSearch ? "/" : "'";
	var body="\n";

	// summary: nn tiddlers found matching '...', options used
	body+="''"+config.macros.search.successMsg.format([matches.length,q+"{{{"+text+"}}}"+q])+"''\n";
	body+="^^//searched in:// ";
	body+=(config.options.chkSearchTitles?"''titles'' ":"");
	body+=(config.options.chkSearchText?"''text'' ":"");
	body+=(config.options.chkSearchTags?"''tags'' ":"");
	body+=(config.options.chkSearchFields?"''fields'' ":"");
	body+=(config.options.chkSearchShadows?"''shadows'' ":"");
	if (config.options.chkCaseSensitiveSearch||config.options.chkRegExpSearch) {
		body+=" //with options:// ";
		body+=(config.options.chkCaseSensitiveSearch?"''case sensitive'' ":"");
		body+=(config.options.chkRegExpSearch?"''text patterns'' ":"");
	}
	body+="^^";

	// numbered list of links to matching tiddlers
	body+="\n<<<";
	for(var t=0;t<matches.length;t++) {
		var date=config.options.chkSearchByDate?(matches[t].modified.formatString('YYYY.0MM.0DD 0hh:0mm')+" "):"";
		body+="\n# "+date+"[["+matches[t].title+"]]";
	}
	body+="\n<<<\n";

	// open all matches button
	body+="<html><input type=\"button\" href=\"javascript:;\" ";
	body+="onclick=\"story.displayTiddlers(null,["
	for(var t=0;t<matches.length;t++)
		body+="'"+matches[t].title.replace(/\'/mg,"\\'")+"'"+((t<matches.length-1)?", ":"");
	body+="],1);\" ";
	body+="accesskey=\"O\" ";
	body+="value=\"open all matching tiddlers\"></html> ";

	// discard search results button
	body+="<html><input type=\"button\" href=\"javascript:;\" ";
	body+="onclick=\"story.closeTiddler('"+title+"'); store.deleteTiddler('"+title+"'); store.notify('"+title+"',true);\" ";
	body+="value=\"discard "+title+"\"></html>";

	// search again
	body+="\n\n----\n";
	body+="<<search \""+text+"\">>\n";
	body+="<<option chkSearchTitles>>titles ";
	body+="<<option chkSearchText>>text ";
	body+="<<option chkSearchTags>>tags";
	body+="<<option chkSearchFields>>fields";
	body+="<<option chkSearchShadows>>shadows";
	body+="<<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>>case-sensitive ";
	body+="<<option chkRegExpSearch>>text patterns";
	body+="<<option chkSearchByDate>>sort by date";

	// create/update the tiddler
	var tiddler=store.getTiddler(title); if (!tiddler) tiddler=new Tiddler();
	tiddler.set(title,body,config.options.txtUserName,(new Date()),"excludeLists excludeSearch temporary");
	store.addTiddler(tiddler); story.closeTiddler(title);

	// use alternate "search again" label in <<search>> macro
	var oldprompt=config.macros.search.label;
	config.macros.search.label="search again";

	// render/refresh tiddler
	story.displayTiddler(null,title,1);
	store.notify(title,true);

	// restore standard search label
	config.macros.search.label=oldprompt;

}

if (!window.discardSearchResults) window.discardSearchResults=function()
{
	// remove the tiddler
	story.closeTiddler(config.macros.search.reportTitle);
	store.deleteTiddler(config.macros.search.reportTitle);
}
//}}}

<<<
# [[Analogy/Illustration]]
# [[Analysis/Evaluation]]
# [[Colored boxes in TiddlyWiki]]
# [[Create a new note]]
# [[Creating folder tab menus in TW]]
# [[Definition/Glossary]]
# [[How to do Greek in TW]]
# [[HowTo]]
# [[Humorous]]
# [[Image]]
# [[Indenting without bullets in TW]]
# [[Journal/Reflection]]
# [[NewTopicTemplate]]
# [[NoteTopicMacroInfo]]
# [[NoteTypeMacroInfo]]
# [[NotesTopics]]
# [[Paraphrase]]
# [[Question-I-Have]]
# [[QuotableQuote]]
# [[Quote:Extended]]
# [[SideBarOptions]]
# [[Statistic]]
# [[Summary]]
# [[Tag clouds for TiddlyWiki]]
# [[TiddlyWiki]]
# [[ViewTemplate]]
<<<

!You can search for your note in three different ways:
#Use the search window in the right-hand sidebar.
#Go to "Notes by topic" or "Notes by type" in the left-hand main menu, and find the note by its topic or type. 
#Use the tabs in the lower right-hand sidebar to find notes alphabetically ("All"), by date modified ("Timeline"), or by tags ("Tags").

<<search>><<closeAll>><<newTiddler>><<newTiddler label:"new note" text:{{"<<formTiddler NewTopicTemplate\>\>"}} tag:"note">><<newTiddler title:"Blank topic" label:"new topic" tag:"notetopic" text: {{store.getTiddlerText("NoteTopicMacroInfo")}}>><<newTiddler title:"Blank note type" label:"new note type" tag:"notetype" text: {{store.getTiddlerText("NoteTypeMacroInfo")}}>><<newTiddler label:"new bib entry" text:{{"<<formTiddler NewBibEntryTemplate\>\>"}}  tag:"authorbook">><<saveChanges>><script label="refresh">
        story.forEachTiddler(function(t,e)
{story.refreshTiddler(t,null,true)});
        refreshDisplay();
        return false;
</script> <<slider chkSliderOptionsPanel OptionsPanel 'options »' 'Change TiddlyWiki advanced options'>>

Another useful ~TiddlyWiki resource from http://www.giffmex.org

My Notes ~TiddlyWiki 2.02

/***
|''Name:''|SparklinePlugin|
|''Description:''|Sparklines macro|
***/
//{{{
if(!version.extensions.SparklinePlugin) {
version.extensions.SparklinePlugin = {installed:true};

//--
//-- Sparklines
//--

config.macros.sparkline = {};
config.macros.sparkline.handler = function(place,macroName,params)
{
	var data = [];
	var min = 0;
	var max = 0;
	var v;
	for(var t=0; t<params.length; t++) {
		v = parseInt(params[t]);
		if(v < min)
			min = v;
		if(v > max)
			max = v;
		data.push(v);
	}
	if(data.length < 1)
		return;
	var box = createTiddlyElement(place,"span",null,"sparkline",String.fromCharCode(160));
	box.title = data.join(",");
	var w = box.offsetWidth;
	var h = box.offsetHeight;
	box.style.paddingRight = (data.length * 2 - w) + "px";
	box.style.position = "relative";
	for(var d=0; d<data.length; d++) {
		var tick = document.createElement("img");
		tick.border = 0;
		tick.className = "sparktick";
		tick.style.position = "absolute";
		tick.src = "data:image/gif,GIF89a%01%00%01%00%91%FF%00%FF%FF%FF%00%00%00%C0%C0%C0%00%00%00!%F9%04%01%00%00%02%00%2C%00%00%00%00%01%00%01%00%40%02%02T%01%00%3B";
		tick.style.left = d*2 + "px";
		tick.style.width = "2px";
		v = Math.floor(((data[d] - min)/(max-min)) * h);
		tick.style.top = (h-v) + "px";
		tick.style.height = v + "px";
		box.appendChild(tick);
	}
};


}
//}}}

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

/*{{{*/
/* SHORTENS THE HEIGHT OF THE HEADER */
.headerShadow {padding: 1.5em 0em 1em 1em;}
.headerForeground {padding: 1.5em 0em 1em 1em;}
.siteTitle {font-size:1.5em;}
.siteSubtitle {font-size:1em;}
/*FONT ADJUSTMENTS*/
body {font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt;}
#mainMenu .tiddlyLinkExisting, #mainMenu .tiddlyLinkNonExisting {font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt;}
.viewer {line-height: 1.7em;}
/*WIDEN MAINMENU*/
#mainMenu {width: 14.5em; text-align: left;}
#displayArea {margin: 0em 15em 0em 15.5em;}
/*TABLE HEADER*/
.viewer th {color: #000; background-color: #eeeeee;} 
/*TIDDLER TOPMARGIN AND BUTTON BORDER*/
a.button{border: 0;} 
.viewer { margin-top: 1em; } 
/*TIDDLER TITLE COLOR MATCH BOTTOM OF HEADER*/
.title {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
/*UNORDERED and ORDERED LISTS TWEAK*/
.viewer li {padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;} 
/*LINELESS BLOCKQUOTES*/
.viewer blockquote {border-left: 0px; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; }
/*HEADLINE COLOR, etc*/
h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 { color: #000; background: [[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]]; font-family: Verdana;}
/*TuDuSlider*/
.tuduSlider .button{font-weight: bold; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt;}
/* GIFFMEX TWEAKS TO STYLESHEETPRINT (so that nothing but tiddler title and text are printed) */
@media print {#mainMenu {display: none ! important;}}
@media print {#topMenu {display: none ! important;}}
@media print {#sidebar {display: none ! important;}}
@media print {#messageArea {display: none ! important;}} 
@media print {#toolbar {display: none ! important;}}
@media print {.header {display: none ! important;}}
@media print {.tiddler .subtitle {display: none ! important;}}
@media print {.tiddler .toolbar {display; none ! important; }}
@media print {.tiddler .tagging {display; none ! important; }}
@media print {.tiddler .tagged {display; none ! important; }}
@media print {#displayArea {margin: 1em 1em 0em 1em;}}
@media print {.pageBreak {page-break-before: always;}}
/*CSS FOR BIBLE FORMATTING*/
#mainMenu {font-weight: bold; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt;}
.engindent {margin-left: 2em; display:block;}
.gkindent {font-family: Gentium; font-size: 18pt; margin-left: 2em; display:block;}
.greek {font-family: Gentium; font-size: 18pt;}
.hebrewNoAlign{font-family: Gentium; font-size: 20pt;}
.hebrewRightAlign{text-align:right; font-family: Gentium; font-size: 20pt; display:block;}
.hebAlignAndIndent{text-align:right; font-family: Gentium; font-size: 20pt; margin-right: 2em; display:block;}
.red {color: #ff3300; font-weight: bold;}
.blue {color: #0000cc; font-weight: bold;}
.green {color: #22bb00; font-weight: bold;}
.gold {color: #bbaa55; font-weight: bold;}
.purple {color: #9922ff; font-weight: bold;}
.gray {color: #777777; font-weight: bold;}
.magenta{color: #cc0066; font-weight: bold;}
.teal {color: #008888; font-weight: bold;}
.burgundy {color: #990000; font-weight: bold;}
.orange {color: #ff8866; font-weight: bold;}
/*INVISIBLE TABLE*/
.viewer .invisiblecomm table {border-color: white;}
.viewer .invisiblecomm table td { font-size: 1em; font-family: Verdana; border-color: white; padding: 10px 20px 10px 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; padding-bottom: 20px;} 
.viewer .invisiblecomm table th { color: #005566; background-color: white; border-color: white; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: bold; padding: 10px 20px 10px 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} 
.viewer .invisiblecomm table tr.leftColumn { background-color: #bbbbbb; }
/*ROUNDED CORNERS AND BORDERS*/
.tiddler {
  border-top:    1px solid #ccc; 
  border-left:   1px solid #ccc; 
  border-bottom: 3px solid #ccc; 
  border-right:  3px solid #ccc; 
  margin: 0.5em; 
  background:#fff; 
  padding: 0.5em; 
  -moz-border-radius: 1em; }
#messageArea { 
  background-color: #eee; 
  border-color: #8ab; 
  border-width: 4px; 
  border-style: dotted; 
  font-size: 90%; 
  padding: 0.5em; 
  -moz-border-radius: 1em; }
h2 {font-color:#000;}
/*}}}*/

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

<<formTiddler NewTopicTemplate>>
Tag Cloud for TW: see in http://tiddlystyles.com

Another site? http://www.digitaldimsum.co.uk/<data>{"notetopic":"TiddlyWiki - goodies"}</data>

http://homespace.oise.utoronto.ca/~benczela/Learning.html

Learning Theory.
Behaviourism.
Freudian Theory.
Piagetian Theory.
Maslow's Needs Hierarchy.
Multiple Intelligences.
	Constructivism.
Situated Cognition.
Metacognition.
Sociocultural Theories.
Critical Theory.

Philosophy of Teaching and Learning
Within this page, you will find my thoughts regarding:
1) What I believe about learners and learning.
2) What I believe about teachers and teaching.
3) What function I see technology serving in the classroom.
In general, I am a strong believer in "suit[ing] the word to the action" (Hamlet, Act 3), that is, teaching students in a way that will reach them on an individual level. Because I feel many things in life work best in moderation, I see a need to use multiple teaching strategies and philosophies to accomplish the goal of educating children. Creating a well-rounded student is another important tenet of my educational philosophy.
I am also a firm believer in the importance of theatre in the education of children and teenagers. Theatre teaches students valuable communication, organization, language and teamwork skills that can be used in any profession they may choose in their future. It is an excellent medium to tie together many of the subjects taught in the established curriculum.

What I Believe About Learners and Learning
I believe that learning is successfully achieved when students are introduced to knowledge that has significance in their lives. Students also learn when they are required to stretch their minds, and discover information for themselves, rather than continually listening to lectures. Also, each student has an individual learning style, such as visual versus auditory learners and these types of variations must be accounted for in the classroom. I see Vgotsky's theory regarding the "Zone of Proximal Development" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 247) as a very important element in the learning process; children are better able to develop in a rich environment which stimulates their desire to learn. I consider Maslow's hierarchy of needs to be essential, for it has been my experience that when students are well rested and have a nutritional diet, they are more active and able to focus and absorb the information presented to them. I feel students must make a commitment to learning and do not believe that when a student refuses to learn it is the fault of the educator with whom the child works.

What I Believe About Teachers and Teaching
To me, teaching is one of the most exciting and challenging professions an individual can pursue. No day is ever the same, and in order to be successful, teachers must be constantly altering their approaches and methods of instruction in the classroom. Personally, I feel teachers should strive to discover ways to make each area of instruction as applicable to the lives and individual abilities of the students as possible. Also, teachers should devise lessons and activities that incorporate multiple skills, levels of comprehension, and subject areas while allowing the students to have an active role in the learning process. For example, if an elementary school classroom operated a lemonade stand, the students would have an opportunity to practice a wide range of mathematical and social skills. Advanced students could handle functions with fractions and multiplication, while others dealt with addition and subtraction. The students would gain valuable social skills by working in teams, and critical thinking would be practiced as students planned the operation of the stand. It is this type of inclusive experience which is able to stimulate and inspire students.

There is no one specific theory I would use exclusively in the classroom. I think it is wise to use a variety of learning philosophies depending upon the information to be presented. In many situations, behaviorism works well for encouraging appropriate behavior in the classroom. Reconstructive methods are important for developing student's growth as productive, upstanding members of society. Many fields require their employees to think critically rather than repeat facts, and it is therefore important for teachers to enhance their students' problem solving abilities. There is also a need for essentialism in the sense that high standards need to be maintained when teaching the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. I also prescribe to Vgotsky's theories that individual development is related to social and cultural contexts (Driscoll, 2000, p. 240). Teachers should attempt to expose their students to as many experiences as possible in order to provide a solid, well-rounded learning environment.

How I Believe Technology Serves Teaching and Learning
Although technology has had an amazing impact on education in the past ten years, the most effective ways to incorporate technology into curriculum continue to be explored. I believe technology should be used in the "background" of educational settings. Technology is efficient in easing the tasks of the teacher. Rather than using an outdated overhead transparency, or write the material on a blackboard (only to be erased when the lesson is complete), a teacher can prepare a clean, colorful, engaging presentation on disk and save it for future use, making minor adjustments as necessary. Computers are also excellent tools to reinforce classroom material and drill newly acquired knowledge. It can be extremely beneficial for students to use software programs that provide immediate (and often entertaining) feedback for their responses. However, it is my opinion that students should not be left unsupervised with computers during school hours. The teacher should always be present to guide the students in their activities on the computer. Technology is important as a tool for teaching, but should not replace teachers in the classroom.

Reference:
Driscoll, M.P. (2000). Psychology of leaning for instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Back to Home

<<forEachTiddler
     where 'tiddler != context.inTiddler &&
            tiddler.tags.contains(context.inTiddler.title)'
sortBy 'GroupTitle = tiddler.data("notetopic")
+"###"+tiddler.data("booktitle")'
script 'function getGroupTitle(tiddler, context) {
    if ( (context.lastGroup != "no subtopics") && (!context.lastGroup
|| context.lastGroup != tiddler.data("notetopic")))
{
        context.lastGroup = tiddler.data("notetopic");
        if (!context.lastGroup || context.lastGroup == "")
context.lastGroup = "no subtopics";
        return "!! "+context.lastGroup+"\n";
    } else return "";}'
write
'getGroupTitle(tiddler, context)+"** [["+tiddler.title+"]]\n"' 
>>

/%
|Name|ToggleRightSidebar|
|Source|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#ToggleRightSidebar|
|Version|1.0.0|
|Author|Eric Shulman - ELS Design Studios|
|License|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#LegalStatements <br>and [[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/]]|
|~CoreVersion|2.1|
|Type|script|
|Requires|InlineJavascriptPlugin|
|Overrides||
|Description|show/hide right sidebar (SideBarOptions)|

Usage: <<tiddler ToggleRightSidebar>>

Config settings:
	config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelShow (◄)
	config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelHide (►)
	config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipShow ("show right sidebar")
	config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipHide ("hide right sidebar")

%/<script label="show/hide right sidebar">
	var sb=document.getElementById('sidebar'); if (!sb) return;
	var show=sb.style.display=='none';
	if (!show) { sb.style.display='none'; var margin='1em'; }
	else { sb.style.display='block'; var margin=config.options.txtDisplayAreaRightMargin||''; }
	if (typeof(place)!='undefined') {
		place.innerHTML=show?
			config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelHide:config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelShow;
		place.title=show?
			config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipHide:config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipShow;
	}
	document.getElementById('displayArea').style.marginRight=margin;
	config.options.chkShowRightSidebar=show;
	saveOptionCookie('chkShowRightSidebar');
	var sm=document.getElementById('storyMenu'); if (sm) config.refreshers.content(sm);
	return false;
</script><script>
	if (config.options.chkShowRightSidebar==undefined)
		config.options.chkShowRightSidebar=true;
	if (!config.options.txtDisplayAreaRightMargin||!config.options.txtDisplayAreaRightMargin.length)
		config.options.txtDisplayAreaRightMargin="18em";
	if (config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelShow==undefined)
		config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelShow=config.browser.isSafari?"&#x25c0;":"&#x25c4;";
	if (config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelHide==undefined)
		config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelHide="&#x25ba;";
	if (config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipShow==undefined)
		config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipShow="show right sidebar";
	if (config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipHide==undefined)
		config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipHide="hide right sidebar";

	var show=config.options.chkShowRightSidebar;
	document.getElementById('sidebar').style.display=show?"block":"none";
	document.getElementById('displayArea').style.marginRight=show?
		config.options.txtDisplayAreaRightMargin:"1em";
	place.lastChild.innerHTML=show?
		config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelHide:config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarLabelShow;
	place.lastChild.title=show?
		config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipHide:config.options.txtToggleRightSideBarTipShow;
	place.lastChild.style.fontWeight="normal";
</script>

You can find our tutorial, "~TiddlyWiki for the Rest of Us", [[here|http://www.giffmex.org/twfortherestofus.html]]. This tutorial is written in non-technical language so that everyone can benefit from this great program.

''My apologies that there is no easier way to do this!''
#Download this file to your hard drive and open it.
#From the backstage area, open the import section and browse to find your original file. Then import ONLY the note tiddlers and other tiddlers you created yourself, with the following exceptions:
##Any categories you created in your original "Notes by type" menu to the left. Do not import these. If need be, create them anew with the new topic or the 'new note type' buttons in the new file. This ensures that they contain the new macro.
##If you modified stylesheets and templates, or ~SideBarOptions, I highly recommend re-adding your tweaks to the new file manually.
##Make sure to uncheck the box about syncronising files before hitting the import button.
#You will need to reload/refresh your browser for everything to look clean.
#Rename the new file as desired.

If you have any trouble upgrading, contact me at contacto@giffmex.org and I will try to help you out.

<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' ><span style="padding-right:0.15em;" macro='monkeyTagger notetopic'></span><span style="padding-right:0.15em;" macro='monkeyTagger notetype'></span> <span macro='toolbar -closeTiddler closeOthers +editTiddler > fields syncing permalink references jump'></span> </div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='subtitle'><span macro='view modifier link'></span>, <span macro='view modified date [[DD MMM YYYY]]'></span> (<span macro='message views.wikified.createdPrompt'></span> <span macro='view created date [[DD MMM YYYY]]'></span>)</div>
<div class='viewer' macro='view text wikified'></div>
<div class='tagClear'></div>
<!--}}}-->

<<crossIndex notetopic>>

http://www.learning-theories.com/humanism.html
http://www.learning-theories.com/

/***An adaptation of [[easyFormat]]***/
//{{{
config.commands.Color = new TWkd.Ease('Color','change the color of selected text');

config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Red',
 tooltip:'turns selection red',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{red{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Blue',
 tooltip:'turns selection blue',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{blue{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Green',
 tooltip:'turns selection green',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{green{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Gold',
 tooltip:'turns selection gold',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{gold{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Gray',
 tooltip:'turns selection gray',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{gray{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Magenta',
 tooltip:'turns selection magenta',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{magenta{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Purple',
 tooltip:'turns selection purple',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{purple{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Teal',
 tooltip:'turns selection teal',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{teal{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Color.addMode({
 name:'Burgundy',
 tooltip:'turns selection burgundy',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Color.putInPlace("{{burgundy{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
//}}}

/***
|!''Name:''|!easyFormat|
|''Description:''|the format command format selection according to your choice|
|''Version:''|0.1.0|
|''Date:''|13/01/2007|
|''Source:''|[[TWkd|http://yann.perrin.googlepages.com/twkd.html#easyFormat]]|
|''Author:''|[[Yann Perrin|YannPerrin]]|
|''License:''|[[BSD open source license]]|
|''~CoreVersion:''|2.x|
|''Browser:''|Firefox 1.0.4+; Firefox 1.5; InternetExplorer 6.0|
|''Requires:''|@@color:red;''E.A.S.E''@@|
***/
//{{{
config.commands.Format = new TWkd.Ease('Format','format selection accordingly to chosen mode');

config.commands.Format.addMode({
 name:'Bold',
 tooltip:'turns selection into bold text',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Format.putInPlace("''"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"''",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Format.addMode({
 name:'Italic',
 tooltip:'turns selection into italic text',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Format.putInPlace("//"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"//",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Format.addMode({
 name:'Underline',
 tooltip:'underlines selected text',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Format.putInPlace("__"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"__",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Format.addMode({
 name:'Highlight',
 tooltip:'highlight selection',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Format.putInPlace("@@"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"@@",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Format.addMode({
 name:'Hyperlink',
 tooltip:'turns selection into a link using double brackets',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Format.putInPlace("[["+TWkd.context.selection.content+"]]",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
//}}}

/***An adaptation of [[easyFormat]]***/
//{{{
config.commands.Indent = new TWkd.Ease('Indent','indents selected text as a blockquote');

config.commands.Indent.addMode({
 name:'Indent1x',
 tooltip:'indents text 1x',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Indent.putInPlace("{{engindent{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Indent.addMode({
 name:'Indent2x',
 tooltip:'indents text 2x',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Indent.putInPlace("{{engindent{{{engindent{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Indent.addMode({
 name:'Indent3x',
 tooltip:'indents text 3x',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Indent.putInPlace("{{engindent{{{engindent{{{engindent{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}}}}}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Indent.addMode({
 name:'Indent4x',
 tooltip:'indents text 4x',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Indent.putInPlace("{{engindent{{{engindent{{{engindent{{{engindent{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}}}}}}}}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
config.commands.Indent.addMode({
 name:'Indent5x',
 tooltip:'indents text 5x',
 operation:function(){
config.commands.Indent.putInPlace("{{engindent{{{engindent{{{engindent{{{engindent{{{engindent{"+TWkd.context.selection.content+"}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}",TWkd.context.selection);
 }
});
//}}}

<<formTiddler NewTopicTemplate>>